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15  BROMFIELD  STREET,  BOSTON. 

JOHN  A    BOYLE,  Manager. 


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BOSTON   SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO., 

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METHODS 


TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 


NOTES  OF  LESSONS, 


BY 

LUCRETIA   CROCKER, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  BOARD  OF  SUPERVISORS, 
BOSTON  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS. 


V 

Printetr  at  tfje  Request  of  tfje  &eacfjers  in  Ittentrance, 


SECOND  EDITION. 


BOSTON,  MASS.  : 
BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  COMPANY, 

NO.  15  BROMFIELD  STREET. 

1884. 


L 


Copyright, 
BY  LUCRETIA  CROCKER. 

1884. 


C.  J.  PETERS  AXD  SON, 

ELECTROTYPERS  AND  STEREOTTPERS, 

145  HIGH  STREET. 


PREFACE, 


THE  writer  of  these  notes,  in  responding  to  an  invitation 
to  occupy  an  hour,  on  four  successive  Saturdays,  in  presenting 
methods  of  teaching  geography,  was  embarrassed  by  the 
breadth  of  the  subject  to  be  treated  in  so  limited  a  time. 
It  was  necessary  to  determine  what  could  be  done,  and  what 
could  be  omitted.  A  mere  outlining  of  a  plan  of  study  would 
be  neither  helpful  nor  satisfactory.  It  seemed  desirable, 
therefore,  to  try  to  indicate  the  stages  of  a  progressive 
course  of  study,  and  to  present  methods  of  teaching  a  few 
important  points.  The  topics  selected  for  fuller  treatment 
were  among  those  that  require  simple  and  careful  presenta- 
tion by  teachers,  in  order  that  the  concise  statements  of  the 
text-books  may  be  comprehended  by  pupils.  It  should  be 
stated,  however,  that  these  topics,  when  illustrated  in  their 
proper  connections  in  the  regular  class-teaching,  will  not 
have  the  undue  prominence  that  was  given  them  designedly 
in  this  brief  course  of  lessons. 

The  printed  notes  indicate  the  arrangement  and  method 
followed ;  but  the  lessons  were  not  written  out  at  the  time 
they  were  given,  and  no  attempt  has  been  made  to  reproduce 
them  in  full. 


BOSTON,  April  7,  1883. 


362237 


INTRODUCTORY. 


THE  inquiry  why  we  teach  geography  naturally  precedes 
the  consideration  of  how  we  ought  ta  teach  it. 

Let  us  assume  that  our  main  purpose  is  to  give  our  pupils 
a  real  knowledge  of  the  earth  on  which  they  live.  This  im- 
plies that  we  wish  to  lead  them  to  perceive  its  wonderful 
adaptation  to  the  wants  of  man ;  its  resources  for  food,  cloth- 
ing, shelter,  and  for  the  arts  and  industries  of  civilized  soci- 
ety. They  should  catch  glimpses  of  its  marvellous  beauty  and 
grandeur;  and  should  find  the  close  relations  that  exist  be- 
tween physical  conditions  and  the  life  of  different  nations. 

As  teachers  of  geography  we  shall  draw  upon  our  largest 
resources  in  natural  and  physical  science,  in  general  history, 
and  in  art  and  literature.  However  elementary  our  instruc- 
tion, we  shall  need  a  wide  range  of  knowledge,  as  we  travel, 
in  imagination,  with  our  pupils,  over  the  broad  earth ;  help- 
ing them  to  see  phases  of  nature  and  of  life,  on  sea  and  land, 
in  hot  and  cold  countries,  on  mountains  and  deserts,  and 
among  untutored  and  civilized  people. 

Geography,  well  taught,  is  an  educational  study,  cultivat- 
ing the  imagination  and  judgment,  as  well  as  the  memory ; 
training  the  mind  in  both  observation  and  language.  Per- 
haps no  other  branch  in  the  grammar-school  curriculum  gives 
opportunity  for  culture  in  so  many  directions.  And  there 
is  no  subject  taught  in  which  it  is  more  necessary  for  the 

5 


6  INTRODUCTORY. 

teacher  to  be  independent  of  the  text-book,  especially  in  the 
arrangement  of  lessons,  and  in  the  apportionment  of  time, 
according  to  the  relative  importance  of  the  parts  of  the 
subject. 

Text-books  of  geography  must  give  more  names,  statistics, 
and  facts  than  we  wish  to  keep  in  our  minds,  or  to  have  our 
pupils  learn.  They  are,  in  a  sense,  reference  books ;  correct, 
for  the  time,  in  many  statements  that  will  be  untrue  before 
the  children  of  to-day  take  our  places.  We  should  not,  then, 
cumber  their  memories  with  what  may  prove  worse  than 
useless  rubbish,  because  not  so  easily  disposed  of. 

Are  we,  then,  to  discard  text-books?  Certainly  not;  but 
we  are  to  make  them  our  helpers,  not  our  guides.  Are  we 
to  dispense  with  memory-work  for  our  pupils?  Certainly 
not.  We  must  have  it,  or  our  teaching  will  fail  in  results. 
But  we  must  put  life  and  color  into  the  dry  facts  of  our 
text-books,  and  give,  for  the  memory-lessons,  only  intelligent 
summaries  of  the  valuable  points  of  the  instruction. 

Are  we  to  require  the  study  of  map-questions  ?  Assuredly ; 
but  not  the  learning  of  a  catalogue  of  names.  There  has 
been  no  real  addition  to  geographical  knowledge,  when 
pupils  have  learned  to  repeat  names  with  which  they  have 
no  other  associations  than  the  places  they  occupy  upon  the 
map. 

Are  we  to  have  definitions  accurately  stated  ?  Certainly ; 
but  only  when  the  thing  to  be  defined,  and  the  language  that 
expresses  the  definition,  are  clearly  comprehended. 

Are  we  to  have  question  and  answer,  or  topical  recitations? 
Surely  both  have  a  place.  During  the  presentation  of  new 
points  the  Socratic  method  is  the  true  one.  The  teacher 
must  excite  mental  activity  in  the  class  by  skilful  question- 
ing. The  children  must  be  led  to  think,  to  examine,  and  to 
express  the  results  of  their  study.  The  teacher  should  tell 
them  nothing  they  can  naturally  find  out  for  themselves;  but 


INTRODUCTORY.  7 

their  earnest  study  should  be  supplemented  by  bits  of  in- 
formation, vivid  descriptions,  and  other  illustrations,  given 
by  the  teacher,  in  their  proper  connection.  This,  and  this 
alone,  is  true  oral  instruction,  the  direction  of  the  mental 
activity  of  the  pupils.  After  this  come  the  memory-lessons, 
the  definitions,  and,  finally,  the  reproducing  of  the  different 
points  of  the  geography  of  any  country,  by  topical  recita- 
tions. These  should  be  the  independent  efforts  of  the  pupils, 
expressed  in  their  own  language. 

In  the  process  of  instruction  a  geographical  vocabulary  is 
formed.  This  should  be  fully  grasped  in  both  its  spoken  and 
its  written  forms.  Hard  words  for  children,  perhaps  we  say. 
But  do  not  children,  like  unlettered  adults,  seek  the  long 
words,  and  do  they  not  insist  upon  having  the  right  name  for 
every  new  thing  ?  They  should  have  the  habit  of  taking  each 
new  word  through  the  eye,  as  well  as  the  ear,  and  thus  a 
geographical  vocabulary,  correct  in  spelling  and  pronuncia- 
tion, will  have  a  natural  and  gradual  growth. 

We  come  finally  to  the  question  of  reviews.  Should  not 
the  main  points  of  the  last  lesson  be  gathered  up  before  pro- 
ceeding to  the  next  in  order  ?  Is  there  not  need  of  a  careful 
review,  whenever  the  instruction  on  any  topic  or  subject  is 
completed,  before  passing  to  the  next?  Are  not  the  best 
reviews  often  given  incidentally,  whenever  points  of  previous 
instruction  are  referred  to  ?  Is  not  the  application  of  knowl- 
edge previously  acquired  always  its  surest  test?  In  this 
way  only  do  pupils  appreciate  the  need  of  recovering  lost 
knowledge.  Let  us  have  reviews,  frequent  and  thorough, 
without  dull  repetition,  by  putting  the  old  facts  or  inferences 
into  new  connections ;  and,  by  showing  the  need  of  informa- 
tion, give  the  incentive  to  acquire  it.  Let  our  pupils,  while 
taking  new  steps,  find  their  dependence  upon  steps  pre- 
viously taken. 

It  is  of  great  importance  to  have  the  course  of  study  con- 


8  INTRODUCTORY. 

tinuous  and  progressive,  though  pupils  may  pursue  it  under 
the  care  of  different  teachers.  Thus  only  can  the  best  geo- 
graphical results  be  secured  in  graded  schools.  Let  us,  then; 
so  far  as  is  possible  in  four  hours,  consider  an  outline  for  a 
course  of  study,  and  methods  of  carrying  it  out,  in  successive 
classes,  in  its  three  departments  of  physical,  civil,  and  astro- 
nomical geography. 


METHODS  OF  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 


PREPARATION   FOR  THE   STUDY  OF  GEOGRAPHY   IN 
THE  PRIMARY  SCHOOLS. 

'  IN  some  towns  and  cities  the  study  of  geography  is  begun 
in  the  primary  schools.  Whether  or  not  this  is  the  case,  the 
preparation  for  it  should  be  made  there,  and  the  success  and 
interest  of  the  early  lessons  in  geography  depend  largely 
upon  the  previous  training  of  the  pupils. 

A  progressive  course  of  observation  lessons,  running 
through  the  primary  classes,  will  naturally  include  lessons 
on  color,  form,  place,  plants,  animals,  the  sky,  clouds,  rain, 
snow,  the  natural  features  of  the  vicinity,  etc.  The  relation 
of  these  to  the  study  of  geography  is  evident.  A  familiar 
knowledge  of  their  surroundings  will  make  children  eager  to 
know  about  other  parts  of  the  earth ;  ready  to  see  them 
through  the  imagination,  so  vivid  in  childhood.  Color  and 
form  are  elements  in  the  appreciation  of  the  simplest  descrip- 
tions. Maps  will  be  needed  to  put  distant  places  in  their 
relative  positions ;  but  maps  are  misleading  unless  children 
are  prepared  for  their  use  by  simple,  illustrated  lessons  on 
place,  direction,  and  distance.  A  teacher,  about  to  give  the 
first  lessons  in  geography,  should  discover  whether  or  not  the 

9 


10  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

class  has  received  proper  preparatory  training.  If  not,  such 
lessons  as  are  here  indicated  should  be  given  as  an  indispen- 
sable preparation. 

I.  Lessons  on  Place  (including  Relative  Position,  Direction, 
and  Distance). 

1.  (a)  Illustrations  of  the  use  of  the  prepositions  of 
place ;  as  on,  above,  before,  between,  under, 
below,  behind,  around,  etc. 

METHOD. 

By  placing  objects. 

The  teacher  places     ....     the  pupil  imitates. 
The  teacher  places     ....    the  pupil  describes. 
The  teacher  dictates  ....     the  pupil  places. 
The  teacher  disarranges      .     .     the  pupil  replaces  from  memory. 

(b)  Illustrations  of  the  use  of  the  terms  right,  left, 
middle,  centre,  corner,  etc. 

Lessons  as  above. 
Eight-hand  corner 


Left-hand  corner 
Front  right-hand  corner 
Back  left-hand  corner 
Middle  of  right  side,  etc. ,  , 


-  of  table  or  desk. 


(c)  Representations  by  the  pupils  of  the  relative  posi- 
tion of  objects. 

By  drawing  on  their  slates  the  form  of  desk  or  table,  and 
marking  the  position  of  objects  on  it. 

2.  (a)  The  necessity  for  SL  standard  of  distance  shown. 

Near  to far  from. 

Nearer  to farther  from. 

How  near  ? how  far  away  ? 

A  long  way  off how  far  ? 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  11 

(b)  Measurements    in    the   school-room :    either    in:. 

inches,  feet,  yards;  or  in  metres,  decimetres, 
centimetres. 

(c)  Representations  on  a  scale,  of  the  top  of  a  desk 

or  table,  and  of  the  floor,  with  the  places  of 
a  few  objects  designated. 

Thus  far  Primary-School  work,  and  these  lessons  lead 
directly  to  the  preparation  for  the  use  of  maps. 

II.  Lessons  on  Plants  and  Animals. 

That  live  on  the  land ;  in  the  water  ;  in  the  air. 
That  have  their  home  in  hot  parts  of  the  earth ;  in 
cold  parts  ;  in  forests  ;  in  plains  and  deserts  ;  on 
mountains. 

Most  of  the  children  have  eaten  the  fruits  of  warm  climates. 
They  have  seen  the  animals  that  usually  belong  to  a  menage- 
rie or  circus,  and  know  that  many  of  them  are  brought  across 
the  great  ocean  from  other  lands. 

III.  Stories  and  reading-lessons  about  people  who  live  far 

away. 

In  what  kind  of  homes  ?     What  they  eat  ? 
What  they  wear  ?  What  they  do  ? 

What  animals  they  use  ? 

The  friends  of  many  of  the  children  have  been  far  away 
over  sea  or  land.  What  have  the  children  heard  of  their 
journeys  ? 

IV.  General  knowledge  gained  by  most  children  before  be- 

ginning the  study  of  geography. 

1.  Of  land  and  water. 

Of  the  uses  of  each  (for  living,  travelling,  food-pro- 
ducts, etc.). 
Of  different  modes  of  travelling  (transportation). 


12  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Of  different  occupations  of  people  (familiar  and  un- 
familiar) . 

Of  different  people  and  their  ways  of  living  (man- 
ners and  customs). 

Of  different  natural  features  (hill,  pond,  and  island). 

2.  Of  air  all  around,  over  land  and  water  (atmosphere). 
Of  a  draught  of  air  (wind). 

Of  the  quick  drying  of  mud,  clothes,  etc.,  in  a  warm 

air ;  in  a  windy  day. 
Of  the   different  forms  of  water  (log,  clouds,  rain, 

snow,  hail). 

3.  Of  the  sun  as  giving  light  and  heat. 

Of  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars,  as  far  away. 
Of   divisions    of   time :  —  day,  night;  week,  month, 
year;  spring,  summer,  autumn,  winter. 

4.  Of  the  terms  circle,  circumference,  diameter,  sphere, 

hemisphere    (from   the    lessons    in    drawing   and 
form.) 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  13 


BEGINNINGS    IN    GEOGRAPHY, 

OB,  A  FIKST  COURSE  OF  LESSONS. 


A  PLAN  OF  WORK,  BASED  ON  THE  PRELIMINARY  KNOWLEDGE 
GAINED    IN   THE    PRIMARY    SCHOOLS. 

As  the  children  have  already  a  notion  of  land  and  water ; 
of  people  living  far  away  ;  of  hot  climates  where  oranges  and 
bananas  grow,  and  where  lions  and  tigers  live ;  and  of  cold 
climates  where  the  fur-bearing  animals  are  found ;  it  seems 
desirable  to  lead  them  at  once  to  think  of  geography  as  the 
study  by  which  they  are  to  learn  about  the  great  world  on 
which  they  live,  and  over  which  people  travel  either  for  busi- 
ness or  pleasure. 

A  few  introductory  lessons,  that  appeal  to  the  imagination 
of  the  children,  and  excite  interest  by  calling  out  whatever 
knowledge  they  may  have,  will  present  to  them  the  idea  of 
the  whole  earth,  before  taking  up  the  study  of  topography, 
which  should,  of  course,  begin  with  the  immediate  surround- 
ings ;  taking  first  whatever  natural  features  are  best  known, 
and  leading  out  to  the  study  of  the  various  forms  of  land  and 
water. 

These  first  lessons  should  be  entirely  oral,  the  teacher 
using  a  vivid  style  and  familiar  language.  The  children 
should  be  encouraged  to  tell  what  they  know  already.  The 
aim  should  be  to  create  an  interest  in  the  different  natural 
features  and  productions  of  the  earth  ;  and  to  describe  simply 
the  habits  and  occupations  of  people  of  distant  lands,  —  thus 


14  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

giving  a  human  interest  to  geography.     The  treatment  of  the 
subjects  cannot  be  too  simple  or  familiar. 

The  geographical  vocabulary,  spoken  and  written,  should 
be  formed  as  new  words  are  introduced. 


I.  Lessons  to  lead  children  to  a  simple  conception  of  the  earth 
as  a  great  ball 

moving  in  the  air, 
lighted  by  the  sun, 
with  a  surface  of  land  and  water. 
(Address  their  imaginations,  making  "word-pictures"). 

Illustrations :  —  A  ball'  tossed  into  the  air.  —  A  balloon  in  the  air. 
—  Birds  in  the  air  everywhere. — Boys  in  other  places  flying 
kites.  —  Air  all  over  the  round  earth.  —  A  picture  of  a  globe  float- 
ing in  air. 

The  evening  star,  another  earth. 
The  moon,  a. small  earth. 

Illustrations  of  shape.  —  Beads,  marbles,  balls,  oranges,  and  the 
globe,  shown  for  form  only,  not  for  shapes  of  land  and  water 
until  preparation  for  the  use  of  maps  has  been  made.  —  Alike 
in  shape,  —  different  in  size. 

Illustration  of  the  flat  appearance.  — A  piece  of  cardboard,  with 
a  small,  round  hole  in  the  middle,  placed  on  a  large  globe. 

Illustration  of  size.  —  Imagine  a  horse-car  track  laid  around  the 
earth,  — more  than  half  a  year,  day  and  night  included,  required 
for  a  single  passage. 

Illustration  of  the  two  motions.  — Let  one  pupil  stand  for  the  sun; 
another  pupil  carry  the  globe  round  him,  rotating  it  all  the  time. 

Results  of  the  two  motions. — Day  and  night.  A  year.  (Suffi- 
cient knowledge  for  this  stage  of  the  study). 

Axis  —  Real  and  imaginary.  Hot  parts,  as  related  to  equa- 

Poles  of  the  axis.  tor. 

Circumference  —  diameter.  Cold  parts,  as  related  to  poles. 

Equator,  as  related  to  poles.  Temperate   parts,   as  between 

(Illustrations  —  A  ball   and  a  hot  and  cold  parts, 

knitting-needle  —  A     spin-        Climate,  as  name  for  kind  of 
ning-top.  weather. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  15 

II.  Lessons  on  the  natural  features  of  the  surface. 

Begin  with  the  most  familiar. — A  hill,  a  pond,  a  stream, 
a  coast-line,  islands,  whatever  can  be  seen  by  the  class. 
"  1.  Observe.  2.  Name.  3.  Describe." 

Aids  to  teaching.  —  Pictures  ;  blackboard  illustrations ; 
moulding-board.  "  Our  World  "  No.  1,  by  Miss  Hall. 

As  a  new  feature  is  introduced,  ascertain  whether  any 
child  has  seen  or  heard  of  it.  If  a  feature,  an  island,  for  in- 
stance, cannot  be  observed,  make  a  sketch  on  the  black- 
board or  show  a  picture  (not  a  map).  Let  the  children  note 
that  it  is  approached  by  a  boat  or  ship.  Show  another  pic- 
ture with  a  peninsula,  and  call  for  the  difference  between  an 
island  and  a  peninsula.  A  class  is  thus  prepared  for  a  con- 
cise statement,  for  a  definition  of  a  natural  feature. 

A  large  wooden  tray  and  a  few  quarts  of  moulders'  sand, 
with  which  the  children  may  represent  mountains,  valleys,  a 
coast-line,  islands,  etc.,  will  be  very  serviceable.  By  this 
means  children,  from  the  start,  associate  relief  as  well  as 
horizontal  forms  with  the  land-surface.  The  land  is  treated 
as  a  solid,  having  length,  breadth,  and  height.  The  mould- 
ing-board will  show  differences  in  level  on  a  sea  coast ;  the 
distinction  between  cape  and  promontory ;  the  gradual  rise 
of  the  land  from  the  sea-level  to  a  mountain  system ;  the 
valleys  for  rivers,  and  why  they  run  in  all  directions ;  the 
mountain  slopes,  and  how  minerals  are  accessible.  With  a 
piece  of  mica  or  glass  to  represent  the  sea-level,  the  varied 
character  of  the  sea-bottom,  with  submarine  mountains, 
border  islands,  the  foundations  for  coral  reefs,  etc.,  may  be 
indicated.  The  first  outlines  may  be  drawn  from  moulded 
forms,  before  maps  are  introduced. 

The  objection  that  reliefs  are  greatly  exaggerated  seems  of 
little  weight  in  comparison  with  the  many  advantages  of  a 
moulding-board.  Exaggerated  illustrations  are  often  allow- 


16 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY. 


able  in  order  to  produce  strong  impressions.  Indeed,  we  sel- 
dom think  of  forms  of  relief  as  they  really  are,  in  comparison 
with  the  whole  surface  of  the  earth ;  but  we  consider  them  as 
they  appear  to  the  eye,  in  comparison  with  the  small  visible 
portion  of  the  surface,  and  their  physical  influences,  which 
cannot  be  over-estimated. 


Forms  of  land. 

f  beach. 

Coast  or  Shore  I  cliffs. 
I  bluffs. 


Hill 

and 

Mountain 


(  summit. 
!  slopes, 
base. 


Continent. 

Island. 

Peninsula. 

Isthmus. 

Cape. 

Promontory. 


Volcano 


crater. 


chain, 
system. 


( lava. 
Table-land. 
Valley. 


Plain 


Forest. 
Prairie. 
Desert:  oasis. 


The  water. 

f  The  great  salt  ocean  flowing  around  and  between  the  conti- 

\      nents. 

(  Fresh  water  flowing  through  the  land. 

Forms  of  water. 

Springs,  —  Brooks,  —  Rivers,  —  Lakes,  —  How  formed  ? 
Pure  water.  Branches. 

Mineral.  Source. 

Hot.  Current. 

Geysers.  \  Mouth. 

Banks. 
Waterfalls. 
Uses. 

Sea,  —  Gulf,  —  Bay,  —  Harbor,  —  Strait,  —  Channel,  —  Sound. 


METHODS   OF   TEACHING     GEOGRAPHY.  17 

III.  Lessons  in   connection  with  the  study  of  the  natural 
features. 

Principal  occupations  of  the  people  of  the  earth  included  in  these 
lessons. 

What  the  earth  affords  on  its  land-surface. 

Vegetation.  Animals. 

\  live-stock. 
For  food  and  drink  (agriculture).     For  food  j  dairy-products. 

f  furs. 
For  clothing  (manufactures).  For  clothing  j  skins. 

[  leather. 

For  fuel.  For  labor. 

For  medicine.  For  utensils  <  JJ^y' 

For  building-material  (lumbering). 
For  oils  and  dyes. 
For  utensils. 

Some  specially  useful  plants.       Specially  useful  animals. 


Cotton-plant. 
Sugar-cane. 
Rice. 
Grape-vine. 

Palms. 
Bamboo. 
Coffee-plant. 
Tea-plant. 

Horse. 
Cow. 
Reindeer. 
Camel. 

Bog. 
Sheep. 
Goat. 
Silkworm. 

Fruits  of  our  climate. 
Fruits  of  hot  climates. 

What  the  earth  affords  under  its  land-surface :  — 
Building  stones  (quarrying). 
Metals,  1 

Coal,      r  mining — manufactures. 
Salt.       j 

What  the  water  affords :  — 

Fish  (fisheries).  Sea-weed. 

Shell-fish.  Salt. 

Whales  (whale-ships,  oil,  Pearls. 

whalebone).  Coral  (reefs  — islands). 
Sponge. 


18  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Atmosphere. 

Air  necessary  to  life—  (illustrations). 
Air  in  motion  —  (wind). 

Moisture  in  the  air  —  visible  —  invisible  —  evaporated  —  con- 
densed, —  (familiar  illustrations). 

IV.  Introduction  of  Maps. 

1.  (a)  Review  primary-school  lessons  on  Position,  Dis- 
tance, Direction.  (See  pp.  10,  11). 

(&).  Show  the  necessity  for  a  standard  of  direction. 

1.  Tell  a  pupil  to  walk  to  the  right,  then  turn  and  walk  to 

the  right.     (Thus  show  that  he  may  walk  to  the  right 
and  reach  opposite  points  of  the  room). 

2.  Pass  from  the  relative  terms,  right,  left,  etc.,  to  the  abso- 

lute terms,  north,  south,  east,  west. 
Children   facing  the  sun  at  noon  —  look  south.    Their 

shadows  —  fall  north.     (True  for  any  place  north  of  the 

Tropic  of  Cancer). 

Facing  the  sunset  —  look  toward  the  west. 
Facing  the  sunrise  —  look  toward  the  east. 

{c)  Show  compass.  Mark  lines  of  direction  on  the  floor. 
Give  practical  exercises  to  teach  N.,  E.,  S.,  W., 
N.E.,  S.E.,  1ST.W.,  S.W. 

Children  walk,  point,  tell  the  direction  of  objects. 

Children  find  the  directions  of  other  class-rooms ;  of  other  places 

from  the  school-house. 
Tell  how  to  go  to  their  homes;  give  the  directions. 

(d)  Let  the  children  represent  on  slates  the  table-top, 
floor,  etc.,  keeping  points  of  compass. 

Do  not  confuse  the  children  by  making  representations  at  first 
on  the  upright  blackboard.  When  they  are  familiar  with  a 
plan  drawn  on  their  slates,  let  them  hold  their  slates  upright, 
with  the  north  at  the  top. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  19 

(e)  Let  them  study  a  good  plan  (map)  of  the  immediate 

vicinity. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  draw  it  on  a  sheet  of  blackboard  paper, 
which  may  be  placed  horizontally  at  first,  and  afterward  in  an 
upright  position. 

Take  imaginary  walks  on  it.  Note  directions  taken.  Settle 
doubts  by  actual  observation. 

2.  (a)  Study  a  map  of  the  city  or  town,  or  of  a  part  of  it. 

A  stranger  would  like  such  a  map  — why  ? 
Show  where  the  surrounding  towns  are. 
Find  natural  features,  hill,  pond,  stream,  etc. 
Find  direction  of  principal  streets. 
Describe  places  of  interest. 

(£)  Let  the  children  find  the  scale  of  the  map ;  deter- 
mine distances  upon  it. 

3.  (a)  Show  the  need  of  maps.     How  the  early  travel-"^) 

lers  made  maps.     Difference  between  picture 
and  map. 

(£)  Let  the  children  draw  from  the  moulded  form  a 
representation  of  coast-line,  with  bay,  cape, 
peninsula,  island,  etc. 

(c)  Show  an  outline  map  of  a  continent  (one  with- 

out names  preferable). 

Let  the  children  learn  to  read  the  map-symbols 
for  mountains,  rivers,  etc. 

(d)  Let  the  children  find  the  natural  features  on 

maps  of  other  continents  or  grand  divisions. 

(e)  Find  corresponding  maps  in  the  geographies. 
Compare  scales.     Compare  scales  of  maps  of  the 
grand  divisions. 


20  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

(f)  Find  corresponding  maps  on  the  globe;    find 

relative  position  and  size. 

(g)  Pass  from  the  globe  to  the  maps  of  hemispheres. 

(Each  map  represents  half  the  surface  of  a 
globe  on  a  flat  surface;  illustrate). 

V.    General  study  of  the  Maps  of  Hemispheres:  — 

The  Continents  or  Grand  Divisions. 
Their  names  —  number  —  relative  position  and  size. 

The  Oceans. 

r  volcanic, 
Pacific  —  largest,  many  islands  j  CQral 

Atlantic  —  best  known,  most  travelled,  many  gulfs  and  bays. 

f  pearls,  spices, 
Indian -warm,  small   j  coral;  sponge. 

(  cold,   icebergs,   whales,  seals,   sea- 
Arctic  and  Antarctic  4     fowl 

Important  Islands.  ,  coffee 

East  Indies  — hot  climate  -j  spices, 

I  gums. 

'  fruits, 

salt 
West  Indies —  hot  climate  -  ci    's 

.  sugar. 

Iceland  — volcano,  geysers. 
Sandwich1  Islands — warm  climate,  much  trade,  in  mid-ocean. 

Azores fln</  climate,  in  mid-ocean. 

British  Islands  -  '  (with  Europe). 
Japan  Islands  —  (wiiJ1  Asia)- 
Newfoundland-  (with  £OTth  America)' 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  21 

VI.    General  Study  of  the  Grand  Divisions. 

Children  like  the  strange  and  wonderful,  are  interested  in 
the  people  and  products  of  other  lands ;  therefore  it  is  well 
to  take  early  the  striking  differences  in  nature  and  in  the 
people  of  the  earth,  before  beginning  the  study  of  the  coun- 
tries of  the  grand  divisions  in  order. 

"The  Seven  Little  Sisters,"  and  the  companion  volume 
"  Each  and  All,"  by  Miss  Andrews  ;  "  Aunt  Martha's  Corner 
Cupboard,  or  Stories  about  Tea,  Coffee,  Sugar,  etc.,"  by 
M.  and  E.  Kirby ;  and  "  Little  Lucy's  Wonderful  Globe,"  by 
Miss  Yonge ;  will  furnish  collateral  reading. 

Pictures,  blackboard  illustrations,  vivid  descriptions,  speci- 
mens of  products,  etc.,  will  be  of  great  service. 

Map-drawing,  as  an  aid  in  fixing  in  the  memory  the  forms 
of  the  grand  divisions,  the  position  of  mountain-systems,  and 
of  the  chief  rivers,  lakes,  and  cities,  should  be  begun  early. 
Children  should  not  be  expected,  however,  to  draw  correct 
outlines  at  first ;  and  it  is  unwise  to  let  them  even  see  in- 
correct ones,  therefore  they  should  be  allowed  to  trace  them, 
for  a  time.  Teachers  may  secure  good  beginnings  in  map- 
drawing  by  preparing  cardboard  forms  of  the  grand  divisions, 
corresponding  in  size  with  the  maps  in  the  text-book.  When 
a  grand  division  is  studied,  let  each  pupil  have  one  of  these 
cardboard  forms  (several  of  a  kind  may  be  needed  for  use 
in  a  large  class)  long  enough  to  mark  round  it  upon  slate  or 
paper.  With  an  accurate  outline  thus  drawn,  it  will  be  easy 
for  the  children  to  copy,  from  their  maps,  the  mountains, 
rivers,  arid  cities  selected  for  study.  The  close  attention  re- 
quired for  this  hand-work  will  help  to  fix  forms  and  relative 
positions  in  the  memory. 


22  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Outline  for  the  Study  of  the  Grand  Divisions. 

Position  on  the  globe. 

Climate  —  where  hot,  cold,  temperate  ? 
Relative  Position  and  Size. 

Refer  to  globe  and  maps  of  hemispheres. 
Surrounding  Oceans. 
Form  and  Outline  (character  of  coast). 

Chief  projections  and  indentations. 

Study  of  outline  by  tracing  or  drawing,  not  from  memory. 
_      Mountain-Systems. 

Comparative  Height. 

Direction  of  Slopes  (Drainage). 

Plateaus  —  Valleys  —  Plains. 

Indicate  mountains  on  the  outline  map. 
Rivers  and  Lakes  (principal  ones  only). 

Source — Mouth,  or  outlet. 


Relative  Length. 

Indicate  rivers  and  lakes  on  the  outline  maps. 
Most  valuable  Productions  —  where  ? 
The  important  Countries  and  their  People. 
A  few  well-known  Cities. 
Specially  interesting  localities. 

Special  points  for  North  America. 

f  Esquimaux. 


Greenland  (for  a  cold  country) 


Story  of  "Agoonack,"  one 
of    "  The    Seven    Little 


Sisters. " 
British  America.  —  Forests,  furs,  hunters,  trappers. 

(  Middle  part, 

United  States.  —  Our  country  I  Temperate  climate, 

I  Many  productions. 

Mexico. — Hot,  unhealthful  coast-line  —  high,  pleasant  table- 
lands —  cattle-raising,  prickly  pear,  cochineal. 

For  South  America. 

Hot,  forest  lands,  trees,  animals,  products,  story  of  "  The 

Little  Brown  Baby."  / 
Grassy  plains,   cattle — Andes  region,  mines,  earthquakes, 

volcanoes  —  Patagonia,  dreary  country,  savages. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  23 

For  Europe. 

Many  civilized  nations. 

Many  occupations. 

Many  colonies  sent  to  many  parts  of  the  world. 

Mountain  and  river  scenery. 

Climate  and  products  of  different  parts. 

Interesting  cities. 

Stories  of   "The  Little  Mountain  Maiden"   and  of  "The 

Child  of  the  beautiful  Eiver  Khine."      -      ' 
Story  of  "  The  Little  Merchants,"  by  Miss  Edgeworth,  for 

Vesuvius. 

For  Asia. 

The  largest  grand  division  —  all  climates. 

Highest  mountains. 

Siberia  —  cold,  furs,  forests,  rivers. 

Palestine,  or  Holy  Land.    /3i££L 

Arabs",  Chinese,  Japanese,  Hindoos. 

Special  animals,  and  vegetation. 

Story  of  "Pen-Se." 

"  Little  People  of  Asia,"  by  Olive  Thome  Miller. 

For  Africa. 

The  least  civilized  of  the  grand  divisions. 

Climate  mostly  hot  —  Sahara,  caravans. 

Nile  —  overflow,  pyramids. 

Negro  tribes.   Lion,  elephant,  giraffe,  etc.   Palms,  indigo,  etc. 

Stories  of  "Gemila"  and  "Manenko." 

For  Australia. 


Hot  climate,  droughts. 

Gold,  wool,  queer  animals  and  plants. 

' 


24 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


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METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  25 

VII.    Method  of  Study  for  the  Countries  of  a  Grand  Division. 

The  children  are  now  prepared  to  take  up  such  study  of 
the  countries  of  each  grand  division  as  is  adapted  to  their 
age. 

"  Scribner's  Geographical  Reader  "  (based  upon  "  Guyot's 
Introduction  "),  and  "  Our  World,"  No.  I.,  will  be  useful  for 
collateral  reading.  Books  of  travel,  etc.,  for  special  countries, 
will  add  to  the  interest  of  the  lessons. 

Map-drawing,  as  an  accompaniment  to  the  study  of  a 
country,  will  prove  an  important  aid.  Let  the  reproduction 
of  an  outline  help  the  study  of  the  outline;  the  placing  of 
mountains,  etc.,  be  a  means  of  learning  their  position.  Pupils 
should  not,  however,  be  burdened  with  much  memory-draw- 
ing, nor  distracted  by  drawing  the  map  of  one  country  and 
studying  another.  Practice  on  the  map  of  a  country  already 
studied  may,  however,  at  any  time  be  useful  as  a  review ;  and 
when,  later  in  the  course,  certain  maps  are  to  be  held  in  the 
memory,  occasional  practice  will  be  desirable. 

Example.  —  A  plan  for  the  study  of  New  England. 

Preparation  implied. 

America  —  the  New  World  —  how  discovered  ? 

West  Indies  —  why  so  called  ? 

First  settlements  in  South  and  North  America. 

(First  chapters  in  "  Stories  of  American  History,"  hy  N.  S. 

Dodge,   and    selections    from    other    books,   as    collateral 

reading. ) 

Appearance  of  our  country  when  discovered. 
Indians —  European  colonies. 
The  United  States  — how  formed  ? 
The  thirteen  original  States  —  where  ? 
Present  extent  of  the  United  States. 
General  study  of  the  United  States. 
New  England  —  in  what  part  of  the  United  States. 
What  mountain-system  crosses  it  ? 


26  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

1.  Have  a  map  of  New  England. 

Have  the  moulded  form,  showing  direction  of  moun- 
tain-ranges and  slopes,  drainage,  rivers,  and  lakes. 

Why  called  New  England  ? 
Names  of  the  six  States. 
Coast-line,  articulation  of. 
Other  Boundaries. 
Mountains. 

Two  main  ranges  —  highest  peak,  summits,  slopes, 
trees,  scenery,  rock  quarries-5-  "  Granite  State." 
Drainage. 

Valleys,  Rivers  (rapid  currents  useful  for  ?),  Lakes. 
Climate. 
Different  kinds  of  Surface. 

quarrying, 
lumbering, 

fishing. 
Afferent  Occupations  of  the  people  H  commercej 

manufactures, 
x  farming. 
Where  the  good  places  for  Cities  ? 

r  manufactures, 
Find  the  most  .mpor-     commerce  and  trade> 

tant  cities  noted  for  \  capita,s. 
Description  of  interesting  localities,  cities,  etc. 

Combine  map-drawing  with  study. 

The  children  are  now  prepared  for  such  study  of  the  text-book 
as  is  desirable.  Ready  to  seek  information  elsewhere.  Pic- 
tures, specimens,  etc.,  as  aids.  Map-drawing  as  the  study 
proceeds. 

(Put  no  names  on  the  map  at  first.    Memory-drawing  not 
required. ) 

(a)  Review  study  of  outline. 

Draw  the  outline  (on  paper). 

Draw  boundaries  between  the  States. 

(b)  Review  mountains. 

Indicate  mountains  on  the  outline  map. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  27 

(c)  Review  rivers  and  lakes. 

Indicate  rivers  and  lakes  on  the  map. 

(d)  Review  cities. 

Indicate  cities  on  the  map. 

(e)  Make  a  general  review. 

Put  on  the  map,  from  memory,  names  of  bays,  capes, 
islands,  mountain-ranges,  rivers,  lakes,  and  cities. 

3.  Let  the  children  give  a  summary  of  the  knowledge 

gained,  without  questions,  in  the  order  of  topics. 
Describe  imaginary  journeys. 
Write  letters  from  different  places. 


More  or  less  time  should  be  given  to  the  sections  of  our 
own  country,  and  to  the  other  countries  of  the  world,  accord- 
ing to  their  relative  importance. 

A  few  striking  points,  strongly  made,  would  be  sufficient 
for  the  whole  continent  of  Africa,  in  this  first  course. 

Example. 
1.  — Africa. 

Thorough  training  with  the  use  of  maps  as  to  the 
position  of  Africa  and  its  relation  to  other  grand  divi- 
sions. Regular  coast-line,  disadvantages  of.  Mountains 
—  Chains  along  the  coast,  the  highest  on  the  east,  Atlas, 
Kong,  Snow  mountains.  ^Rivers  —  Nile,  flowing  north- 
ward ;  Congo,  Niger,  Zambesi,  and  other  rivers  flowing 
into  the  Atlantic  and  Indian  oceans.  Divisions  — 
Egypt,  Abyssinia,  Barbary  States,  Sahara,  Soudan, 
Guinea,  Cape  Colony.  Cities  —  Cairo,  Alexandria, 
Suez,  Algiers,  Cape  Town. 


28  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

2. — North  Africa. 

Atlas  Mountains  along  the  northern  coast;  hilly 
country  on  the  borders  of  the  torrid  zone.  Climate 
pleasant,  nearly  tropical.  Date  and  gum  trees,  fragrant 
and  medicinal  plants.  Lions,  gazelles,  hyenas,  jackals. 
Exports  —  dates,  nuts,  oil,  sponge. 

People  not  negroes,  but  Arabs,  Moors,  Turks  —  all 
Mohammedans.  Some  civilized,  living  in  cities ;  others 
wandering  Arabs,  living  in  tents.  - 

Dress  and  customs  of  Mohammedans.  Character- 
istics of  Mohammedan  cities  —  narrow  streets,  flat 
house-tops,  mosques,  etc.  (Selections  from  Lane's 
"Modern  Egyptians";  Bayard  Taylor's  "Lands  of 
the  Saracen.") 

Egypt  —  a  narrow  valley  between  the  desert  and  the 
Red  Sea.  Suez  canal.  The  Nile,  its  course,  overflow, 
delta.  Cultivation  of  cotton,  wheat,  sugar-cane,  etc. — 
Villages  and  palm  trees  along  the  river ;  no  forests ;  pyr- 
amids and  ruins  along  its  lower  course,  (mention  of  an- 
cient history)  ;  cities  near  the  mouth.  —  (See  "  Egypt," 
by  Stanley  Lane-Poole ;  "  Egypt  and  Nubia,"  by  J.  A. 
St.  John.) 

3.— Sahara. 

The  great  desert  —  sandy  levels,  rocky  ridges,  oases, 
sand-storms ;  Bedouins ;  caravans  coming  and  going 
between  northern  cities  and  towns  of  Soudan;  stories 
and  pictures  of  desert  life. 

4. —  Almost  Unexplored  Region. 

Great  wilderness  inhabited  by  uncivilized  negro  tribes, 
wearing  little  clothing,  living  in  circular  mud  huts  with 
thatched  roofs,  using  rough  earthenware,  mats,  etc ; 
occupation  chiefly  hunting  and  warfare.  Some  of  the 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  29 

more  advanced  tribes  make  cotton  cloth  in  small  pieces, 
spears,  anklets  of  iron  and  copper,  and  cultivate  patches 
of  cotton,  indigo,  and  millet.  Manners  and  customs. 
Rivers  with  crocodiles  and  hippopotami.  In  the  forests, 
elephants,  lions,  antelopes,  giraffes,  gorillas,  apes,  etc. 
—  (See  the  works  of  Livingstone,  Stanley,  and  other 
explorers.) 

5.  — West  and  East  Coasts. 

Low,  hot,  tropical  country ;  rice,  peanuts,  castor-oil 
plant,  and  thick  forests  or  jungle  along  the  rivers. 
Native  huts,  and  here  and  there  small  trading  towns 
(Portuguese  and  English),  where  merchants  exchange 
calico,  guns,  knives,  beads,  etc.,  for  ivory,  ostrich- 
feathers,  and  beeswax,  which  the  natives  bring  from 
the  interior ;  and  for  palm-oil,  peanuts,  rice,  gold-dust, 
etc.,  obtained  on  the  coast. 

6.  —  Cape  Colony. 

In  possession  of  the  English.  Story  of  the  discovery 
of  the  Cape.  Country  hilly,  with  mountain-ranges  from 
east  to  west.  Pleasant,  temperate  climate.  Grain,  bulbs, 
wine.  Dutch  sheep-farmers  inland.  Ostrich-farming. 
Gold  and  diamond  diggings.  Cape  Town.  Wool  the 
chief  export. 

7.  —  Islands. 

Madagascar,  one  of  the  largest  islands  on  the  globe. 
High  mountains.  Peculiar  plants  and  animals.  St. 
Helena,  a  rocky  island,  in  mid-ocean.  Place  of  Napo- 
leon's exile.  Cape  Yerd,  Canary,  and  Madeira  Islands ; 
volcanic ;  pleasant  climate ;  vineyards ;  canary-birds. 

Note.  — For  other  books  on  Africa,  see  list  on  pp.  69-71. 


30  METHODS    OF    TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY. 


A   SECOND   COURSE  OF  LESSONS. 


A  first  course,  for  children,  should  be  mainly  observational 
and  descriptive,  with  only  such  inferences  in  regard  to  physi- 
cal influences  as  the  children  can  be  led  to  make  from  facts 
observed  by  them  or  given  to  them.  If  this  course  creates 
an  interest  in  the  further  study  of  the  world,  and  gives,  to 
those  pupils  who  may  not  take  a  second  course,  a  knowledge 
of  the  different  natural  features  and  products,  and  of  the  life 
of  people  in  the  different  parts  of  the  earth,  the  desired  ends 
are  accomplished. 

A  second  course  should  be  more  logical  and  systematic 
though,  in  both  statements  and  illustrations,  it  should  still  be 
simple. 

As  the  climate  of  any  part  of  the  earth  depends  primarily 
on  its  solar  heat,  and  as  natural  products  and  civilization  de- 
pend mainly  upon  climate,  it  is  important  that  this  second 
course  should  be  based  upon  the  consideration  of  the  earth's 
relations  to  the  sun. 

I.  The  Form  of  the  Earth. 

The  ancient  nations,  living  around  the  Mediterranean,  be- 
lieved that  the  earth  was  a  great,  circular  plain,  surrounded 
by  an  ocean,  from  which  the  sun  rose,  and  into  which  it  set. 
The  earliest  descriptions  and  maps  of  the  world  that  have 
been  preserved  (about  500  B.C.)  tell  us  this. 

Long  before  the  time  of  Columbus,  learned  men  believed 
the  form  of  the  earth  to  be  that  of  a  globe ;  but  the  belief 
was  not  general. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  31 

Columbus  thought  he  had  reached  India,  when  he  found 
America  ;  and  this  fact  shows  that  he  had  no  conception  of 
the  size  of  the  earth. 

Proofs  of  Us  Form. 

(a)  Magellan's  Voyage  (1520).  (d)  Horizon— the  circle  of  vision. 

(6)  Vessels  coming  in  sight —  Everywhere  a  circle. 

Vessels  going  out  of  sight  —  Horizon  on  a  plain, 

how  seen  ?  Ascending  a  hill. 

Illustration  — a  toy  ship  on  (e)  Shadow  of  the  earth  —  eclipse 

a  globe.  of  the  moon. 

Cause  —  curvature  of  the  sur-  Only  a  sphere  can  always  cast 

face  of  the  sea.  a  circular  shadow.      Illus- 

(c)  Sailors    approaching    land —  trate. 
what  first  seen? 

True  Form. 

Spheroidal,  not  spherical.  Difference  in  diameters. 

II.  Size  of  the  Earth. 

Circumference  at  the  equator. 

Diameter  at  the  equator. 

Diameter  in  direction  of  the  axis. 

Illustration.  —  Time  for  railroad  train  to  go  round  the  circum- 
ference (25,000  miles).  —  Rate,  30  miles  an  hour.  — More  than 
a  month,  making  no  stops. 

III.  Latitude  and  Longitude. 

Means  of  fixing  the  position  of  places  on  the   earth 
necessary.     Illustrate. 

Lessons  with  the  use  of  a  globe. 

Find  Equator  —  where?    It  is  the  circumference  of  a  circle  — 

where  the  centre  of  the  circle  ?  —  where  the  plane  of  the  circle  ? 

(Accustom  the  pupils  to  the  planes  of  circles  before  teaching  the 

plane  of  the  orbit.    Cut  apples  to  illustrate. ) 
The  Equator  a  great  circle. 
Find  Parallels  — why  not  great  circles  ? 
centres  where  ? 
planes  where  ? 


32  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Every  circumference  divided  into  360  degrees. 
"  "  measures  four  right  angles. 

The  length  of  degrees  differs  on  the  parallels. 

Parallels  mark  distances  north  and  south  of  the  Equator — called 
Latitude. 

What  else  needed  to  fix  the  position  of  a  place  ? 
No  natural  starting-place  (or  circle)  from  which  to  reckon  dis- 
tance east  and  west. 

Different  countries  use  different  circles. 

They  must  be  north  and  south  circles. 

They  must  all  pass  through  the  poles. 

They  mark  the  line  of  the  mid-day  shadow  at  anyplace  —  the 
north  and  south  line. 

They  are  therefore  called  Meridians  (from  mid-day). 

Every  place  has  such  a  line  for  mid-day  shadows. 

Extended,  it  makes  a  circle  passing  through  the  poles. 

On  the  semicircle  opposite  the  place  is  the  midnight  line  —  or 
the  mid-day  line  for  the  place  opposite. 

All  the  meridians  are  great  circles  — 
having  their  centres  where  ? 
having  their  planes  where  ? 

How  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian  of  a  place  on  a  sunny  day  ? 

How  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian  on  a  starry  night  ? 

How  can  a  sailor  or  traveller  find  the  direction  of  the  meridian 
of  a  place  at  any  time  ? 

Where  would  a  person  standing  on  the  north  pole  see  the  pole- 
star? 

Where,  if  standing  on  the  equator  ? 

Where  do  we  see  the  pole-star  ? 

How  find  the  north  and  south  points  of  the  horizon  from  the 
pole-star  ? 

Draw  a  vertical  semicircle  in  the  air  to  connect  the  north  and 
south  points  of  the  horizon  ? 

It  will  pass  through  the  zenith. 

Observatories  have  such  a  visible  north  and  south  semicircle, 
very  carefully  placed.  Therefore  such  a  circle  is  taken  to 
reckon  east  and  west  distances  from. 

One  at  Greenwich,  England  ; 
"    Paris,  France; 
"    Washington. 

We  reckon  generally  from  the  English  starting-point. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  33 

East  and  West  distances,  called  Longitude.  180°  East;  180° 
West. 

North  and  South  distances,  called  Latitude.  90°  North;  90° 
South. 

Why  these  terms  used  ?    (They  would  not  be  selected  now.) 

All  places  on  the  meridian  of  Greenwich  have  no  Longitude, 
when  that  meridian  is  used  as  the  First  or  Prime  Meridian. 

Give  the  class  practice  in  finding  the  Latitude  and  Longitude  of 
certain  places,  and  in  finding  places  when  Latitude  and  Longi- 
tude are  given. 

Latitude,  measured  where  ? 

Longitude,  measured  where  ? 

Why  degrees  of  Longitude  vary  in  length  ?    (Pupils  discover.) 

Sailors,  on  the  ocean,  can  find  their  Latitude  and  Longitude  (the 
place  of  their  ship)  by  observing  the  sun. 

IV.  The  Motions  of  the  Earth  —  Effects. 

1.  The  round  earth  floats  in  space,  as  a  balloon  floats  in 

the  air. 
It  is  lighted  by  the  sun.     How  ? 

Illustration.— Hold  a  ball  in  the    sunlight  or  before  a 

lighted  lamp. 

However  it  is  held,  one  half  is  lighted. 
The  same  is  true  of  the  earth. 

1st  point.  —  Always  a  hemisphere  lighted. 
If  the  ball  and  light  are  both  motionless,  the  same  hemi- 
sphere is  always  lighted. 
What  effects,  if  this  were  true  of  the  earth  ? 
Turn  the  ball  on  its  axis  once.     (Knitting-needle  for  axis.) 
2d  point.  —  Observe    the    lighted    hemisphere    constantly 

changing. 
Why  ? 

2.  Rotation. 

Then  the  turning  of  our  earth  on  its  axis  gives  us 

day  and  night. 
Evidences  of  the  earth's  rotation. 


34  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Apparent  daily  movement  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 

^  In  a  moving  railway  car. 
Illustration.  <  _> 

^  Real  and  apparent  motion. 

The  difference  in  the  speed  of  rotation  of  different  parts. 
Greatest  speed  at  the  equator  —  about  1,000  miles  an  hour. 
Speed  decreasing  toward  the  poles. 

(a)  Let  the  axis  of  the  ball  (representing  the  earth) 

be  upright. 

Rotate  and  observe  effect. 
Let  a  pupil  put  on  a  cardboard  disc,  or  day  circle,  to 

separate  the  light  and  dark  hemispheres. 
It  passes  over  the  poles. 
Day  and  night  everywhere  alternately. 

(5)  Let  the  axis  be  horizontal.     Rotate. 

The  day  circle  will  correspond  with  the  equator. 
The  same  hemisphere  always  lighted. 

(c)  Let  the  axis  be  oblique.     Rotate. 

The  day  circle  neither  passes  over  the  poles  nor  cor- 
responds with  the  equator. 

Around  one  pole,  constant  day. 

Around  the  other  pole,  constant  night. 

Is  any  one  of  the  three  cases  (a,  6,  c)  true  for  our 
Earth  ? 

Then  there  is  something  more  to  find  out ;  but  we 
will  first  illustrate  sunrise  —  noon  —  sunset  —  mid- 
night—for some  place. 

Use  the  day  circle  or  a  black  cap  covering  a  hemi- 
sphere ("night  cap"),  and  a  wafer,  on  a  ball  or 
globe. 

We  say  the  sun  rises  at  any  place  when  that  place 
turns  into  the  sun's  light.  (Real  and  apparent 
motion. ) 

Give  practice  in  finding  sunrise,  etc.,  for  different 
places  on  the  ball. 

Have  you  observed  whether  or  not  the  sun  rises  and 
sets  at  the  same  time  through  the  year  ? 

Is  the  sun  ever  higher  or  lower  in  the  sky,  when  you 
go  from  school  at  noon,  than  it  is  now  ? 

Let  us  find  out  the  reason  for  these  differences. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  35 

3.  Revolution.     Changes  of  Seasons. 

(a)  Who  can  tell  about  another  movement  of  our 

earth? 

We  will  give  our  ball  the  other  movement.  What  are 
the  names  of  the  two  poles  of  the  earth's  axis  ? 

If  I  call  the  upper  end  of  the  ball's  axis  the  north 
pole,  how  shall  I  hold  the  ball  ? 

Place  the  ball  with  its  axis  pointed  rightly  and  in- 
clined rightly,  and  with  the  north  pole  turned 
toward  the  light.  Let  a  pupil  put  on  a  disc  or  cap, 
as  before. 

How  is  the  earth  lighted  now  ? 

Which  pole  is  in  sunshine  ? 

Can  any  one  tell  which  of  our  seasons  this  represents  ? 

(b)  Carry  the  ball  to  the  opposite  side  of  the  lamp 

(thus  making  a  strong   contrast  in  condi- 
tions). 

Let  a  pupil  arrange  disc  or  cap  now. 

How  is  the  earth  lighted  now  ? 

Which  of  our  seasons  is  represented  ?    Why  ? 

(c)  Carry  the  globe  through  the  next  quarter-revo- 

lution. 

Let  a  pupil  arrange  now  for  the  lighted  hemisphere. 
Tell  how  the  earth  is  lighted  now  ? 
Which  of  our  seasons  now  ?    Why  ? 

(d)  Complete  the  revolution.     Restore  and  describe 

the  first  conditions  (given  under  a).     Pass 
through  the  next  quarter-revolution. 

Describe  conditions  for  our  spring  and  for  autumn 
in  the  other  hemisphere. 

(e)  Give  sufficient  practice  to  strengthen  the  points 

made. 

Let  a  pupil  take  the  ball,  arrange  it,  and  make 
the  revolution.  Class  observe  —  tell  the  seasons. 
Finally  have  written  descriptions. 


36  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Summary. 

Then  the  changes  of  the  seasons  are  caused  by 

(1)  the  revolution  of  the  earth  around  the  sun ; 

(2)  the  inclination  of  the  earth's  axis;  and  (3) 
the  unvarying  direction  of  the  axis.     Any  two 
of  these  causes,  acting  without  the  third,  would 
not  produce  a  change  of  seasons. 

Let  pupils  illustrate  the  action  of  two  conditions 
without  the  third. 

4.  Variation  in  the  Length  of  Day  and  Night. 

(a)  Introducing  both  motions  of  the  ball. 

Draw  the  equator  and  the  parallel  of  the  city  or  town 
where  the  school  is. 

Pupils  find  which  circle  is  exactly  half-lighted,  how- 
ever the  disc  is  put  on. 

What  about  the  lighting  of  the  parallel  ? 

Mark  the  place  for  their  city  or  town  with  a  wafer. 

(b)  Put  the  ball  in  position  for  the  northern  mid- 

summer. 

Put  the  wafer  in  position  for  sunrise. 
Show  where  on  the  same  parallel  it  is  sunset. 
Mark  this  place  with  another  wafer. 
Rotate  the  ball. 

Are  these  wafers  longer  in  the  dark  or  in  the  light  ? 
What  do  you  know  then  about  day  and  night,  on  our 

parallel,  at  this  time  of  the  year  ? 

(c)  With  the  ball  in  the  same  position,  put  a  wafer 

on  the  part  of  the  earth  where  Agoonack, 
the  Esquimaux  girl,  lives  (see  p.  22). 

Tell  about  her  day  and  season. 

Hold  a  crayon  on  the  farthest  point  of  the  surface 

beyond  the  north  pole  that  sunlight  reaches. 
Rotate.  —Keep  the  crayon  in  position  and  let  it  draw 

a  circle  as  the  ball  rotates. 
Rotate  again.  —Pupils  watch  and  tell  about  the  day 

of  all  places  within  this  circle. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  37 

(d)  Hold  a  crayon  on  the  central  point  of  the  lighted 

hemisphere. 

Kotate.  — Let  the  crayon  draw  a  circle. 

Lead  pupils  to  tell  that  all  places  on  this  circle  have 

a  vertical  sun  at  noon. 
Rotate  several  times.  —  Pupils  tell  about  the  relative 

length  of  day  and  night  in  different  places. 

(e)  Carry  the  earth  through  half  a  revolution. 

Pupils  tell  the  conditions  and  seasons.  .Repeat  the 
experiments  and  draw  the  corresponding  circles  for 
the  southern  hemisphere. 

Practice  and  reviews  necessary. 

(f)  Where  did  we  draw  the  polar  circles  ? 
Where  did  we  draw  the  other  two  parallels  ? 
Let  us  see  upon  what  their  places  on  the  globe 

depend. 

Change  the  inclination  of  the  axis. 

Rotate.  —  Pupils  see  that  the  places  of  these  circles 

are  changed. 
Then  their  places  depend  upon  the  slanting  of  the 

axis, — 23£  degrees  from  the  upright  position. 
Remember  that  the  axis  inclines  23£  degrees,  and  that, 

each  pole  points  always  in  the  same  direction. 
Practice  and  reviews  needed. 

(g)  Place  the  ball  in  the  intermediate  positions  for 

spring  and  autumn. 

Use  day  circle  or  cap  as  before. 

Lead  pupils  to  see  that  one  half  of  each  parallel  is 

lighted. 
Rotate.  —  Lead  pupils  to  infer  that  days  and  nights 

are  equal  everywhere.     (Say  nothing  of  tlie  poles). 
What  season  in  each  hemisphere  ? 


38  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

(h)  Carry  the  ball  through  a  quarter-revolution  slowly, 
rotating  it  all  the  time. 

Pupils  notice  and  describe  the  gradual  changes  in 

season  and  length  of  day  for  either  hemisphere. 
Give  practice  and  reviews. 

5.  Tropics  and  Polar  circles. 

The  pupils  should  be  ready  now  to  state  — 

(1)  That  the  tropics  mark  the  limits  of  a  vertical  sun. 

Why  called  tropics  ? 

(2)  That  the  polar  circles  mark  the  limits  of  the  con- 

tinuance of  daylight  for  more  than  twenty-four 
hours. 

Lead  the  pupils  to  discover  that  the  sun  is  overhead  at 

the  tropics,  once  each  year. 
Overhead  between  the  tropics,  twice  each  year. 

"        at  the  northern  tropic  at  our  midsummer. 
"        "     "   southern  tropic  at  our  midwinter. 
"         *'     "   equator  in  spring  and  autumn. 
"        at  all  places  between  equator  and  tropics  at 
intermediate  times. 

6.  Orbit  and  Plane  of  Orbit. 

Place  a  large,  circular  piece  of  cardboard  around  a  globe  or 
ball  representing  the  sun. 

Hold  a  smaller  ball  (representing  the  earth)  so  that  a  hemi- 
sphere shall  be  above  the  cardboard  (keeping  conditions 
of  axis). 

Lead  pupils  to  see  that  the  centres  of  the  two  balls  are  in 
the  plane  of  the  cardboard,  and  that  this  plane  might 
surround  the  earth  as  it  does  the  sun,  and  extend  far  in 
all  directions. 

Lead  them  to  imagine  an  immense  distance  between  the 
balls;  so  that  the  space  between  the  sun  (the  large  ball) 
and  the  wall  of  the  room  behind  it  would  be  as  nothing  to 
any  one  on  the  earth  (the  small  ball)  looking  at  the  sun. 
The  sun  would  seem  to  such  an  observer  to  touch  the 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  39 

wall,  as  a  tree  on  the  top  of  a  distant  hill  seems  to  touch 
the  sky  behind  it. 

Our  sky  seems  like  the  inner  surface  of  a  hollow  hemi- 
sphere (where  is  the  other  hemisphere  ?),  with  the  sun, 
moon,  and  stars  moving  over  it.  So  the  sun  seems  to  us 
to  be  among  the  stars.  The  stars  are  really  very  much 
farther  away  than  the  sun.  If  the  school-room  were 
dome-shaped,  we  might  imagine  its  walls  to  be  the  sky 
for  our  balls.  Let  us  try  to  do  so. 

Let  the  earth  revolve  round  the  edge  of  the  cardboard 
(keeping  conditions  of  axis,  etc.). 

Pupils  (imagining  the  great  distance)  tell  where,  on  the 
walls,  the  sun  might  seem  to  be,  as  seen  from  the  revolv- 
ing earth.  (Perhaps  near  certain  pictures  on  the  walls, 
taken  as  stars. ) 

The  path  in  which  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun  is  called 
its  orbit. 

The  cardboard  represents  an  imaginary  flat  surface,  pass- 
ing through  the  centres  of  both  sun  and  earth,  on  which 
this  path  or  orbit  lies.  This  imaginary  surface  is  called 

the  plane  of  the  orbit.  \  Imaginary  axis. 
(  Imaginary  plane. 

Then  the  sun  seems  to  move  among  the  stars  in  the  sky, 
because  the  earth  really  moves  among  them. 

As  the  pictures  on  the  walls  have  names,  so  groups  of  stars 
have  names.  Long  ago  people  thought  they  could  find 
pictures  in  the  stars.  One  group  was  called  a  great  bear, 
or  a  great  dipper  (who  ever  heard  of  that  in  the  sky  ?) ; 
another  a  dog;  another  a  warrior  with  his  belt  and 
sword  (did  any  one  ever  see  Orion  on  a  beautiful  winter 
night?),  etc. 

One  of  these  groups  of  stars  was  called  Cancer  (a  crab); 
and,  as  the  sun  seemed  then  to  be  in  this  group  of  stars 
when  overhead  to  people  on  the  northern  tropic,  we  have 
the  name  Tropic  of  Cancer.  (No  attempt  need  be  made 
to  show  the  present  distinction  between  constellations 
and  signs  of  the  zodiac.) 

When  the  sun  was  overhead  to  people  on  the  southern 
tropic,  he  seemed  then  to  be  among  the  stars  that  form 
the  group  called  Capricornus  (the  goat);  and  so  we  have 
the  name  Tropic  of  Capricorn. 


40  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  north  pole  of  the  earth  points  to  a  group  of  stars  called 

Arctos  (the  bear),  and  so  we  have  the  name  Arctic 

Circle. 
The  opposite  pole  is  named  Anti  (or  opposite  the)  Arctic  ; 

and  so  we  have  the  name  Antarctic  Circle. 
-  Tropical  has  come  to  mean  hot,  and  Arctic  to  mean  cold 

or  frigid. 

7.  Zones. 

The  tropics  and  polar  circles  mark  the  earth  off 
into  belts  or  zones.  Find  them  on  the  map. 

Between  the  tropics  —  the  hot  or  Torrid  Zone. 
Rainy  and  dry  seasons.     When  ?     Why  ? 

Between  the  tropics  and  polar  circles  —  the  two 
Temperate  Zones. 

Four  seasons  —  The  most  favorable  conditions 
for  civilization. 

Between  the  poles  and  polar  circles  —  the  two 
Arctic  or  Frigid  Zones. 

Short  summers  —  long  winters. 

Lead  pupils  to  observe  the  difference  in  the  daily  path  of 
the  sun,  from  month  to  month,  and  to  report  it.  To 
observe  also  the  difference  in  time  and  direction  of  the 
sun's  rays  coming  through  a  school-room  window  at  dif- 
ferent seasons.  Also  the  greater  heat  of  noontide  rays 
than  of  the  morning  or  evening  rays.  Of  summer  than 
of  winter  rays. 

Give  or  read  some  vivid  description  of  the  long  winter  night 
in  northern  regions,  with  its  auroras,  etc. ;  then  the 
gradual  return  of  the  sun,  —  first  a  long  twilight ;  then  a 
peep  of  sunlight;  then  lengthening  days,  till  the  sun 
does  not  set.  Then  the  gradual  decline  of  sunlight  into 
night  again. 

The  poem  "  Bidding  the  Sun  Good  Night  in  Lapland,"  by 
Joy  Allison,  is  appropriate  here. 

8.  Difference  in  Time  from  Difference  in  Longitude. 

Did  you  ever  hear  that  a  traveller  finds  his  watch  wrong 
when  he  arrives  at  a  place  east  or  west  from  his  starting 
point  ? 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  41 

We  can  now  find  out  why  this  is  so.  Let  us  put  a  wafer  on 
our  globe  where  London  is,  another  where  we  are.  Put 
both  places  on  the  dark  side.  Kotate  the  globe.  Raise 
your  hands  when  the  sun  rises  on  one  of  these  places  — 
Which  ?  Now  the  London  clocks  should  show  sunrise 
time.  Should  our  clocks  show  time  before  or  after  sun- 
rise ? 

If  a  watch,  right  for  London  time,  were  brought  here, 
would  it  be  too  fast  or  too  slow  ? 

If  a  watch  were  carried  from  here  to  London,  would  it  be 
too  fast  or  too  slow  ?  Why  ? 

Can  we  find  out  how  much  too  slow  or  too  fast  these 
watches  would  be  ? 

What  do  we  know  about  the  time  of  the  earth's  rotation  ? 

What  do  we  know  about  the  number  of  degrees  in  every 
parallel  ? 

What  do  we  call  distance  east  or  west  on  the  earth  ? 

Who  can  solve  this  problem:  If  a  place  on  any  parallel 
rotates  in  24  hours  (makes  the  whole  circle,  or  360°), 
through  how  many  degrees  would  it  rotate  in  one  hour  ? 

Then  how  many  degrees  of  longitude  would  make  an  hour's 
difference  in  time  ? 

!Nbw  find  for  yourselves  the  difference  in  time  between 
several  places  from  the  difference  in  their  longitude. 

Until  recently,  differences  in  the  times  of  clocks  and 
watches  corresponded  with  differences  in  longitude ;  but, 
in  these  days  of  rapid  travel  over  long  railroad-lines, 
many  people  believe  it  desirable  to  keep  the  same  time 
through  fifteen  degrees  of  longitude;  thus  making  only 
four  differences  in  time  for  our  wide  country.  So  we 
now  have  Eastern,  Central,  Mountain,  and  Pacific  Time. 
This  will  be  explained  more  fully  later  in  the  course. 
(See  page  62.) 

V.  "Winds  —  Currents  of  Air. 

1.  Why  consider  winds?    Because  they  are  the  great 

modifiers  of  climate. 
What  is  air  ? 

We  have  an  envelope  of  air  (the  atmosphere)  around 
the  earth,  more  than  100  miles  deep.     It  differs  in 


42  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

density  —  heavy  near  the  earth  —  lighter  as  it  is 
higher  above  the  surface. 

(Illustration  —  Difficulty  in  breathing  on  a  high  mountain.) 
Air  becomes  lighter  by  taking  watery  vapor. 

Barometer,  as  measure  of  pressure,  or  weight,  of  the  air. 
As  indicator  of  a  storm  coming. 

Air  becomes  lighter  (expands)  by  being  heated. 
(Illustration.  —  Hot  air  rising  over  a  fire  —  upward  draught. ) 

2.  Why  is  the  atmosphere  restless  ?     Why  Winds  ? 

Experiment. — Warm  school-room — cool  corridor — lighted 
candle  held  in  the  door-way.  Candle  at  top  of  the 
door-way,  flame  blowing  toward  the  corridor.  Candle 
at  bottom  of  the  door-way,  flame  blowing  toward  the 
room. 

Two  currents  of  air  in  opposite  directions;  the  lower  a  cold 
current  —  a  surface-draught,  or  wind. 

These  currents  are  caused  by  a  difference  of  temperature  in 
the  room  and  corridor.  The  hot  air  rises,  and  cold  air 
flows  in  to  supply  its  place. 

3.  Breezes  at  the  Seashore  in  the  Summer. 

During  the  day  the  land  and  the  air  over  it  are  hotter  than 
the  surface  of  the  water  and  the  air  over  it. 

What  kind  of  breeze  ?    Sea  breeze. 

(Note.  — Wind  always  named  by  the  direction  from  which 
it  blows. 

During  the  night  and  early  morning,  a  land  breeze.    Why  ? 

Inference.  —  Winds  are  caused  by  difference  of  tempera- 
ture. 

Direction  of  wind  shown  by  weather-vane,  drifting  clouds, 
smoke. 

4.  Trade -Winds.     Origin.     Direction. 

What  do  we  know  about  differences  of  temperature  on  the 
earth?  What  parts  always  hot?  What  parts  always 
cold  ?  What,  then,  can  we  say  about  currents  of  air  ? 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  43 

Arts.  Always  currents  of  cold  air  blowing  from  the  polar 
regions  toward  the  equator.  Always  hot  air  rising  over 
the  hot  regions,  and  passing  off  toward  the  cold  regions. 

If  the  earth  did  not  rotate,  these  polar  winds  would  blow 
in  the  direction  of  the  meridians.  But  the  atmosphere 
rotates  with  the  earth  —  that  over  the  polar  parts,  slowly ; 
that  over  the  hot  parts,  rapidly. 

What  happens,  then,  to  a  stream  of  air  coming  from  the 
north  polar  region  toward  the  equator  ?  Can  it  move  in 
a  north  and  south  line  ?  Ans.  It  has  less  speed  of  rota- 
tion than  the  parts  of  the  earth  over  which  it  passes,  so 
it  falls  more  and  more  behind  the  meridian  on  which  it 
started.  It  falls  westward,  or  blows  more  and  more  from 
the  eastward,  as  places  farther  south  rotate  under  it. 

So  it  is  successively  a  north,  a  northeast,  and,  in  the  torrid 
zone,  an  east  wind. 

What  happens  to  a  similar  stream  of  air  starting  from  the 
south  polar  regions  ? 

Thus  in  the  Torrid  Zone  there  is  a  nearly  constant  east 
wind.  Before  the  days  of  steam  ships  the  world's  com- 
merce depended  so  much  on  this- wind  that  it  was  named 
the  Trade-Wind. 

Think  why  the  "  Windward  islands"  and  " Leeward  isl- 
ands" were  so  named  by  sailors. 

5.  Return  Currents,  or  Counter  Trades. 

What  becomes  of  the  heated  air  that  rises  over  the  hot 
regions  ? 

Where  would  air  be  needed  ? 

Would  this  heated  air,  rising,  be  felt  on  the  surface  of  the 
earth  as  a  wind  ? 

Would  it  get  cooled  ?    How  ?    What  then  ? 

What  would  be  its  speed  of  rotation  ? 

How,  then,  would  it  blow  over  the  northern  hemisphere  ? 
(Our  pleasant  southwest  winds.) 

How  over  the  southern  hemisphere  ? 

These  are  sometimes  called  the  return  trades,  or  counter 
trades.  These  winds  bring  abundant  moisture  to  West- 
ern Europe,  to  the  Pacific  coast  of  North  America,  and 
to  the  coast  of  Chili. 


44  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

6.  Zone  of  Calms. 

Over  the  most  heated  equatorial  belt  the  air  is  constantly 
rising  in  an  upward  current. 

Would  there  be  a  surface  wind  ? 

This,  then,  is  the  Zone  of  Calms  that  sailors  dread.  (Read 
from  "  The  Ancient  Mariner.") 

Sudden  gusts,  hurricanes,  etc.,  occur,  however,  for  the 
upper  current  is  often  disturbed. 

This  zone  does  not  correspond  exactly  with  the  equator, 
because  the  land-masses  make  the  temperature  the  high- 
est a  little  north  of  the  equator.  Its  position  varies 
somewhat  with  the  season,  following  the  apparent  move- 
ment of  the  sun  north  and  south. 

The  strong  ascending  current,  where  the  sun  is  nearly  or 
quite  vertical,  carries  much  vapor  high  into  the  atmos- 
phere, to  be  rapidly  condensed,  and  to  fall  in  heavy 
showers  during  a  few  hours  of  the  day.  Therefore,  the 
middle  of  the  rainy  season,  for  places  within  the  tropics, 
corresponds  in  time  with  the  vertical  sun. 

7.  Monsoons.  —  Season-Winds. 

During  the  northern  summer  the  great  land-masses  of 
Southern  Asia  become  so  heated  that  the  air  rises,  and 
currents  blow  from  the  Indian  Ocean  — called  the  South- 
west Monsoon.  During  the  southern  summer  the  reverse 
happens,  from  the  great  heat  of  the  African  lands,  and 
there  is  a  Northeast  Monsoon. 

These  winds  are  felt  in  the  northern  part  of  the  Indian 
Ocean  and  the  adjacent  parts  of  the  Pacific. 

8.  Variable  Winds. 

The  temperate  zones  have  frequent  changes  of  winds,  and 
the  winds  blow  from  every  direction,  as  we  know.  The 
polar  winds  and  the  return  currents  are,  however,  the 
prevailing  winds. 

9.  Offices  of  Winds. 

Winds  as  purifiers  of  the  earth's  surface. 
Winds  as  distributers  of  moisture. 

Winds  as  intercepted  by  mountain  ranges.  Condensation 
of  moisture. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  45 

VI.  Ocean-Currents. 

The-trade  winds,  the  great  evaporation  within  the  tropics,  and 

the  difference  of  temperature  between  the  equatorial  and 

polar  regions  determine  these. 
After  teaching  winds,  the  causes  and  course  of  the  currents 

are  easily  taught.     Polar,  Equatorial,  Return  Currents. 
Under  currents  —  their  direction  shown  by  moving  icebergs. 
Trace  on  a  map  the  currents  of  the  different  oceans. 
Show  how  they  are  turned  from  their  natural  courses  and 

divided  by  striking  the  land. 
Show  their  advantages. 
Show  effects  of  the  Gulf  Stream  —  climate  of  Western  Europe, 

storms,  fogs,  driftwood. 

Take  imaginary  voyages,  and  let  the  class  decide  upon  winds 
and  currents  that  would  help  or  hinder. 


46  METHODS    OF   TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY. 


THE    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF   THE 
CONTINENTS. 


The  foundations  for  the  study  of  physical  geography  hav- 
ing been  laid,  a  class  is  ready  to  take  up  the  examination  of 
the  physical  character  of  each  grand  division.  Application 
should  be  made  constantly  of  the  knowledge  already  gained 
of  the  distribution  of  solar  heat ;  and  of  winds,  currents,  etc., 
as  the  modifiers  of  climate. 

The  comparison  and  contrast  of  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  different  grand  divisions  will  give  the  repetition  necessary 
to  make  this  fundamental  knowledge  permanent. 

THE    PHYSICAL    GEOGRAPHY    OF   A    GRAND   DIVISION. 
OUTLINE   FOR   THE    STUDY. 

I.  Position  on  the  Globe. 

Hemisphere. 
Zones. 

Crossed  by  what  Circles  ?    Where  ? 
Limits  as  to  Latitude  and  Longitude. 
Position  relative  to  other  grand  divisions. 
Surrounding  Waters. 
Land  Boundaries. 

II.  Size. 

Kelative  to  the  other  grand  divisions. 
Area  —  in  round  numbers. 

III.  Shape. 

General  Form. 

Outline  —  regular  or  irregular.     Compared  with  that  of 
grand  divisions  previously  studied. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


47 


(  Projections. 
Description  of  Coast.  \  Indentations. 

I  Border  Islands. 
Outline  drawn  as  a  part  of  the  study  of  shape,  not  from 

memory  at  first. 

Practice  in  Map-drawing  as  the  study  proceeds.  When 
construction-lines  are  used  let  them  be  derived  from 
the  map,  and  let  the  climatic  circles  that  cross  the 
grand  division  appear  on  the  map. 


IV.  Surface. 


Highlands 


Position  of  Mountain  Systems. 

Direction. 

Ranges. 

Highest  Peaks  (see  Note). 

Volcanoes. 


(  Secondary. 

Plateaus.  -,  _ 

1  Extent  (see  Note). 

Slopes. 
(The  relief  is  best  studied  by  the  use  of  a  moulding-board.) 

(  Plains  —  fertile  or  desert. 
'  I  Valleys. 
Striking  Scenery. 

Profiles  drawn  (from  sections  of  the  moulded  form,  at  first). 
Outline-map  with  Mountain  Systems  indicated  upon  it. 
Comparison  with  the  surface  of  grand  divisions  previously 
studied. 


Lowlands. 


. 
I  Extent  (see  Note). 


River-basins. 


V.  Drainage. 

Water-partings  and  Water-sheds. 

j  Limits  of. 

'  I  Relative  size  (see  Note). 
Source. 
Direction. 
Length  (see  Note). 

Principal  Rivers.  |  Main  Stream  and  Tributaries. 
Mouth,  Delta,  Estuary,  etc. 

...       (  Navigable  or  not. 
Characteristics.  )  0 

(  Scenery. 

NOTE.  —  (Memorize  very  few  exact  measurements.    Compare  others  with  these 
standards.) 


48  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

(  Salt. 

Lakes. — Location.  •{„     , 
(  Fresh. 

Outline-map  with  the  principal  Mountains,  Rivers,  and 

Lakes  indicated  upon  it. 
Comparison  with  the  drainage  of  grand  divisions  already 

studied. 

VI.  Climate. 

Temperature  of  different  parts  inferred  from  Position  on 

the  Earth. 
Variation  in  Seasons,  and  in  length  of  Days  and  Nights 

in  the  different  parts. 

Modifications  of  Climate  \ ,     ,TT.  ,  ~ 

I  by  Winds  and  Currents. 

Moisture  or  Dryness  of  different  parts. 
Healthfulness  of  different  parts. 
Comparison  of  Coast  with  Interior  as  to  climate. 
Comparison  with  the  climate  of  grand  divisions  already 
studied. 

VII.  Life. 

Vegetable.  \  Wild'  f  Of  different  Parts>  inferred  from 

'  (  Cultivated,  j      climate. 

Animal       \  Wild>  I  sPecial  for  different  regions. 

(  Domestic.     I  Peculiar  to  the  grand  division. 
(  People  of  different  parts. 
U  (Savage  — Nomadic  — Civilized. 
Compared  and  contrasted  with  other  grand  divisions. 

Vni.  Regions  adapted  to  — 

Mining  or  Quarrying  —  Resources  of  each. 

Agriculture  or  Grazing. 

Manufactures. 

( Products  that  are  exported,  and 
Commerce  or  Trade.  \     products  that  are  not  exported, 

v     distinguished. 

IX.  Good  Positions  for  important   Cities  —  Natural  Advan- 
tages of  these  Cities. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  49 

X.  Topical  Review  —  oral   and  written  —  with  Map   drawn 
from  Memory. 

A  series  of  map-sketches,  each  illustrating  one  or  two 
topics  clearly,  will  be  helpful  in  the  review,  and  will 
give  the  practice  needed  to  fix  the  map  in  the  memory. 

One  outline  may  contain  only  the  principal  mountain- 
systems,  rivers,  and  lakes,  with  their  names. 

Another,  the  names  of  projections  and  indentations  of  the 
coast-line,  and  of  important  seaports.  Mountains  and 
rivers,  with  inland  cities,  may  Be  indicated,  if  desirable. 

Another  outline,  for  the  names  of  important  produc- 
tions, —  mineral,  vegetable,  animal. 


50  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


POLITICAL   GEOGRAPHY. 


HAVING  studied  and  compared  the  physical  conditions  of 
the  grand  divisions,  a  class  is  prepared  to  take  the  study  of 
the  countries  of  each,  with  special  reference  to  the  life  of  the 
inhabitants.  Pupils  can  now  be  led  to  perceive  that  varied 
physical  features  give  the  opportunity  for  varied  industries 
and  for  a  higher  degree  of  civilization.  They  will  see  that 
natural  barriers  are  often  the  boundaries  between  countries. 

This  study  of  the  people  of  the  earth  will  naturally  be  pre- 
ceded by  the  consideration  of  their  division  into  races,  states 
of  society,  different  forms  of  government  and  religion,  with 
the  characteristics  of  each. 

If  the  usual  arrangement  of  text-books  be  followed,  the 
detailed  study  of  North  America  will  be  taken  first ;  that  of 
South  America  next;  and  lastly,  the  countries  of  the  Old 
World  will  be  studied.  This  seems,  at  first,  the  natural 
order;  but,  in  this  Second  Course  of  Lessons,  there  are  ad- 
vantages in  taking  the  study  of  the  civil  geography  of  the 
New  World  after  that  of  Europe.  When  pupils  have  learned 
the  national  traits  of  Spaniards,  Portuguese,  Dutch,  English, 
and  French,  they  are  interested  in  finding  them  transplanted 
into  the  lands  that  are  or  have  been  colonies  of  European 
nations.  They  will  anticipate  the  social  conditions  in  coun- 
tries of  the  Western  Hemisphere,  and  will  readily  trace  for 
themselves  the  descent  of  the  inhabitants  by  the  names  upon 
the  maps. 

We  can  easily  lead  them  to  see  why  the  nations  of  South- 
ern Europe  were  early  navigators ;  how,  naturally,  the  course 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  51 

of  discovery  was  along  the  African  coast,  till  India,  long 
known,  had  been  reached  by  water  (1498)  ;  and  that  the  hope 
of  reaching  it,  by  sailing  westward,  had  previously  led  Colum- 
bus to  the  discovery  of  America. 

As  the  geography  of  countries  is  closely  associated  with 
the  study  of  their  history,  so  historical  links  should  be  made 
in  studying  political  geography.  Experience  has  proved 
that  there  is  b.oth  economy  of  time  and  increase  of  interest 
for  a  class,  when  the  special  study  of  Europe  precedes  that  of 
the  political  divisions  of  the  New  World.  The  following 
order  of  study  is  therefore  suggested :  — 

The  Countries  (1)  of  Europe  —  (2)  of  North  America  — 
(3)  of  South  America— (4)  of  Asia— (5)  of  Africa— (6) 
Australia ;  Malaysia,  and  other  islands  of  the  Pacific. 

THE    COUNTRIES    OF   A    GRAND    DIVISION. 
METHOD    OF    STUDY. 

I.  A  General  Review  of  the  Physical  Features  of  the  Grand 

Division,  with  Map-drawing  from  Memory. 

II.  The   Names,  Relative   Position,  and  Relative  Size  of  its 

Countries  —  Historical  Points  —  Settlements. 

III.  Study  of  a  Country —  Physical  and  Political. 

Map-drawing  of  the  Country,  as  the  study  proceeds.  (In 
the  manner  indicated  for  the  study  of  New  England,  in 
the  first  course,  pp.  26,  27.  With  or  without  the  use  of  .a 
moulding-board. ) 

Practice-maps  will  be  important  aids  in  the  study  and 
review. 

Memory-maps  of  the  most  important  countries,  and  of  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States,  so  far  only  as  time  will  per- 
mit without  abridging  the  descriptive  geography. 
Position  in  the  Grand  Division  —  Boundaries. 
Character  of  the  Coast-line,  if  any. 


52 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


Surface. 


Climate. 


Occupations. 


What  Mountain-system,  if  any,  crosses  it  ? 

Ranges  —  High  peaks — Scenery  —  Resources. 

Different  kinds  of  Surface  —  Adapted  to  ? 

Rivers  —  Lakes  —  Useful  for  ? 

As  inferred  from  Position  on  the  Earth. 

As  modified  by  Relief,  Winds,  Ocean-Currents. 

Moisture,  Dryness,  Healthf  ulness  —  of  different  parts. 

Compared  with  that  of  the  other  countries  of  the  grand 

division. 

Vegetation  —  wild  and  cultivated  —  products  of  different  parts. 
Animal-life  —  wild  and  domestic  —  special  or  peculiar. 
Races  —  Languages  —  Government. 
Religion  —  Education  —  Customs  and  Manners. 
\  Agriculture  —  Staples. 
Mining  —  Products. 
Fishing. 

[  Manufactures  —  Kinds  of  ?   Where  ? 
Inhabitants,  -j  Trade  and  Commerce.  (  Exports -where  sent? 

( Imports  —  where  obtained  ? 
Population  —  where     sparse  —  where     crowded  ? 

Why? 
Important  Cities  and  Towns  —  situation  —  natural 

advantages. 
Description  of  the  most  prominent  city  or  cities. 

For  Review.  —  Take  imaginary  journeys,  describing  — 

the  route ; 

the  scenery  and  resources  of  the  region ; 

the  cities  passed  through. 
Trace  the  great  railroad  lines,  if  any. 
Other  facilities  for  communication. 
Take  an  imaginary  journey  for  business. 

.Note  important  historical  points  —  colonies  —  foreign  possessions, 
if  any. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  /)3 

The  best  way  to  review  and  strengthen  the  elementary 
knowledge  of  astronomical  and  physical  geography,  pre- 
viously acquired,  is  to  apply  it,  as  the  study  of  countries 
proceeds.  Such  of  the  following  questions  as  are  appro- 
priate for  any  country  will  recall  this  knowledge. 

Does  any  part  of  this  country  have  a  vertical  sun  ?    If  so, 

what  part  ?    Why  ? 
What  do  you  know  of  the  change  of  seasons  in  this  country  ? 

Compare  a  winter  and  a  summer  day  at city. 

What  other  cities  of  the  world  (or  what  cities  of  countries 

recently  studied)  are  in  about  the  same  latitude? 
How  do  they  compare  with  this  city  in  climate  and  industries  ? 
Do  any  of  these  cities  have  noon  at  about  the  same  time  ? 
How  does  the  time  of  day  at city  compare  with  our 

time? 

Does  any  part  of  this  country  have  the  trade  wind  ? 
What  are  the  prevailing  winds  ?    Why  ? 
Which  slope  of  the  mountains  has  the  more  moisture  ?    Why  ? 
Which  plants,  belonging  to  the  zone,  are  not  found  in  this 

country  ?    Why  ? 
Which  animals,  belonging  to  the  zone,  are  not  found  here  ? 

Why? 

When  the  study  of  the  Countries  of  a  Grand  Division  is 
completed,  the  reading  of  one  of  the  "Geographical 
Plays  for  Schools,"  by  Miss  Andrews,  will  give  an 
excellent  review,  and  will  furnish  material  for  topical 
recitation,  oral  and  written. 

The  time  given  to  the  study  of  countries  must  depend 
upon  their  relative  importance.  Our  own  country 
and  the  countries  of  Europe  will  need  more  time  than 
the  countries  of  any  other  grand  division. 


54  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

A    SKETCH    FOE    THE    STUDY    OF    THE    COUNTRIES    OF    AFRICA. 

(In  continuation  of  that  given  for  the  First  Course.) 

North  Africa. 

1 .  Boundaries  —  Countries  — Coast-line. —  Mountains  along 
the  coast,  declining  in  height  eastward.  —  Position,  just  north 
of  the  tropic  of  Cancer.  —  Climate,  sub-tropical  —  wet  and  dry 
seasons  —  irrigation  often  necessary.  —  Date,  gum,  and  cypress 
trees,  and  aromatic  plants  ("Land  of  dates").  —  Lion,  gazelle, 
hyena,  jackal. 

2.  Some  reference  to  the  prominent  place  of  North  African 
nations  in  ancient  times :  half-buried  pedestals  (Carthage)  ; 
hieroglyphics ;  pyramids ;  ruins  of  old  Egyptian  civilization. 
—  Mohammed.  —  Conquest    and   permanent    occupation   of 
North  Africa  by  Arabs.  —  Religion.  —  Koran.  —  Two  Classes 
of  Inhabitants :  (1)  dwellers  in  cities ;  (2)  pastoral  tribes.  — 
Customs.  —  Caravans.  —  Description   of  Cairo,   as   a  repre- 
sentative Mohammedan  city,  —  architecture,  bazaars,  shops, 
baths,  mosques,  etc.     (See   Lane's   "  Modern   Egyptians " ; 
Bayard  Taylor's  "  Lands  of  the  Saracen.") 

3.  Barbary  States  —  names  —  government  —  French  pos- 
session of  Algeria.     Cities.  —  Few  manufactures,  —  morocco 
and  leather,  silk  and  woollens.  —  Exports  —  oil,  dates,  nuts, 
sponge. 

4.  Valley  of  the  Nile  —  course  of  the  river  —  country  dur- 
ing   the    overflow  —  irrigation    by    canals  —  villages  —  the 
whole  population  along  the  river.     Products  —  grain,  cotton, 
beans.     No  forests  —  clusters   of  palms   around  villages  — 
lotus,  papyrus,  etc.,  in  canals.      Condition  of  the  country 
people  —  government.      (See    "Egypt,"   by   Stanley  Lane- 
Poole;  "Egypt  and  Nubia,"  by  J.  A.  St.  John.) 

Suez-canal.  —  Late  war  in  Egypt  —  causes  of. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  55 

Sahara  and  Soudan. 

1.  Sahara  —  a  vast  desert,  equal  in  area  to  the  whole  of 
Europe,  extending  across  the  continent,  from  the  Atlantic  to 
the  Red  Sea,  interrupted  only  by  the  narrow  strip  fertilized 
by  the  Nile —  large  sandy  tracts,  rocky  ridges,  and  a  few 
oases.     Crossed  by  the  tropic,  long  under  a  vertical  sun,  with 
winds  coming  over  the  land  to  a  warmer  region  and  hence 
dry.     Rainless,  except  where  occasional  elevations  cool  the 
air  and  condense  the  moisture.   Around  these  heights,  fertility 
and  verdure.     Caravans  —  Bedouins. 

2.  Soudan  —  the  meeting-ground  of  Arabs  and  Negroes. 
—  A  great,  open  plain,  fertile  and  populous,  with  ridges  of 
hills,  and  a  succession  of  shallow  lakes  or  ponds  often  en- 
crusted with  natron  (carbonate  of  soda),  an  important  article 
of  commerce.     Patches  of  forest ;  pasture  lands ;  tracts  of 
wild  rice,  indigo,  cotton,  sugar-cane,  millet,  etc.,  with  clus- 
ters of  palms,  acacias,  tamarind-trees,  and  the  great  baobab. 
Herds  of  elephants,  antelopes,  and  giraffes. 

Provinces  under  Mohammedan  governors  —  Many  negro 
villages,  and,  across  the  country,  a  line  of  large  cities,  trad- 
ing centres,  in  which  the  square,  flat-roofed  houses  of  the 
Arabs,  and  the  round,  thatched  huts  of  the  negroes,  stand 
side  by  side.  Description  of  Kano  as  a  representative  city. 
(See  Barth,  "  Travels  and  Discoveries  in  North  and  Central 
Africa,"  Vol.  III. ;  or  Schweinfurth's  "  Heart  of  Africa.") 
The  natives,  the  most  advanced  of  the  negro  tribes,  have  a 
few  manufactures;  keep  cattle;  and  cultivate  a  little  cot- 
ton, grain,  and  manioc.  Caravans  from  the  North  bring 
Arab  clothing  (shawls,  bernouses,  etc.),  knives,  guns,  silk, 
and  salt;  and  carry  back  natron,  ivory,  honey,  wax,  and 
slaves. 

The  Abyssinian  Plateau  —  nominally  independent. 


56  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Almost  Unexplored  Region. 

1.  South  of  Soudan,  the  equatorial  region  of  trade-winds, 
rains,  large  rivers  (Congo,  the  largest),  and  lakes  (the  head- 
waters of  the  Mle).     Thick,  tropical  forests  with  lions,  ele- 
phants, zebras,  antelopes,  rhinoceri.     Numerous  streams  with 
crocodiles   and  hippopotami;    swarms   of  locusts;    mound- 
building  termites ;  the  tsetse-fly ;  and,  among  the  hills,  apes, 
gorillas,  and  other  large  species  of  the  monkey  tribe. 

Farther  south,  areas  of  swamps  and  grass-lands  subject 
to  overflow;  with  scattered  gum-trees,  euphorbias,  etc.,  in 
place  of  the  rich,  tropical  forests. — Valley  of  the  Zambesi 
river. 

2.  All  this  interior  region  inhabited  by  uncivilized  tribes 
of  negroes,  and  but  little  known.  —  Some  account  of  recent 
explorers.  —  Condition  and  customs  of  natives  —  houses  — 
occupations.     (See  Livingstone's  "  South  Africa,"  and  later 
books;  Stanley's  "Across  the  Dark  Continent.") 

A  few  well-known  tribes ;  as  Ashantees,  Kaflirs,  Hottentots. 

"West  and  East  Coasts. 

West  Coast.  —  Mountain-chains,  —  not  very  high,  parallel 
with  the  coast.  A  strip  of  low  coast-lands,  hot,  moist,  and 
unhealthful ;  with  a  desert-region,  corresponding  in  position 
and  cause  to  the  desert  of  Atacama,  in  South  America. 
Crossed  by  rivers,  which  deposit  sand-bars  at  their  mouths. 
Tall  palms  rise  above  the  luxuriant  forests  and  mangrove 
jungle  on  the  river  banks.  —  Rice,  peanuts,  sugar-cane, 
etc.,  cultivated;  some  coffee-plantations  among  the  hills. — 
Thatched  huts  of  the  natives.  —  Small  trading  towns  at  in- 
•tervals,  chiefly  Portuguese  and  English.  —  Senegambia,  Sierra 
Leone,  Liberia,  Guinea,  where  ? — Exports :  oil,  peanuts,  gold- 
dust  from  the  river-sands ;  with  ivory,  ostrich-feathers,  and 
beeswax,  brought  by  native  traders  from  the  interior. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGKAPHY.  57 

East  coast  very  much  like  the  west,  but  Mohammedans, 
rather  than  English,  in  the  towns.  —  The  highest  mountains 
along  this  coast. 

South  Africa. 

The  region  of  the  tropic  of  Capricorn  is  marked  by  the 
Kalahari  desert ;  long  droughts ;  want  of  water. 

South  of  Orange  river,  ridges  running  east  and  west. 
Tracts  of  "bush,"  or  fleshy,  spiny  plants  —  aloes,  etc.;  also 
bulbous  plants  of  great  beauty,  and  a  variety  of  heaths,  — 
all  characteristic  of  dry  climates.  —  Upland  grazing.  —  Com- 
munity of  Dutch  Boers.  —  Gold  and  diamond  mines.  —  Brief 
account  of  Portuguese  discovery  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

—  Settlement  by  the  Dutch.  —  Possession  by  the  English. 

—  Recent  political  troubles. — Ports.  —  Cape  Town.  —  Eliza- 
beth.—  Grahamstown.  —  Exports:  wool,  wine,  grain.  —  De- 
scription of  towns,  vegetation,  animals,  and  modes  of  travel, 
"Cape-wagons."      (See  Livingstone's  "South  Africa,"  and 
"  Seven  Years  in  South  Africa,"  by  Dr.  Holub.) 

Commerce  and  Trade. 

Commercial  Routes. — 1.  English  steamers  to  Egypt  and  Suez 
Canal.  — 2.  French  steamers  between  Marseilles  and  Algiers. 
—  3.  United  States  trading- vessels  to  ports  of  West  and  South 
Coasts.  —  4.  Steamers  and  trading- vessels  between  England 
and  Cape  Colony.  —  5.  Trading-vessels  from  India  and  Arabia 
to  East  Coast,  chiefly  to  ports  of  Zanzibar. 

Inland  Trade.  —  1.  Caravans  between  the  fertile  provinces  of 
Soudan  and  the  Mediterranean  ports.  —  2.  Short  lines  of  rail- 
way along  the  coast  of  South  Africa,  and  trains  of  ox-wagons 
inland. —3.  In  the  interior,  where  the  tsetse-fly  is  fatal  to 
cattle,  parties  of  native  porters  march  single  file,  carrying  on 
their  heads  loads  of  merchandise  to  and  from  the  coast  towns. 

NOTE.  —For  other  books  on  Africa,  see  List,  pp.  69-71. 


58  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 


GENEKAL    EEVIEW, 

WITH  FURTHER  ATTENTION  TO  IMPORTANT  POINTS. 


When  the  countries  of  the  earth  have  been  studied,  in  the 
manner  suggested,  a  class  should  have  gathered  facts  enough 
concerning  both  physical  and  civil  geography  to  make  a 
final  consideration  of  the  whole  subject  both  interesting  and 
instructive. 

This  review  should  be,  not  so  much  a  rehearsal  of  knowl- 
edge already  acquired,  as  a  comparison  and  classification  of 
that  knowledge,  during*  which  new  points  will  be  presented 
and  new  inferences  made. 

Such  a  review  will  naturally  begin  with  the  relation  of  our 
earth  to  the  solar  system,  or  with 

Astronomical  Geography. 

More  or  less  of  the  points  here  suggested  can  be  taught, 
according  to  the  interest  and  preparation  of  the  class. 
Whether  or  not  they  are  taught,  a  teacher  of  geography 
should  be  familiar  with  them. 

If  the  whole  conception  is  clear  to  the  teacher,  these 
points  can  be  very  simply  presented.  In  some  grammar 
schools  all  these  points  are  taught  with  great  clearness,  and 
are  responded  to  by  classes  with  much  interest.  Such 
teaching  gives  to  the  many  pupils,  who  do  not  go  on  to  the 
study  of  astronomy  in  higher  schools,  a  life-long  habit  of 
observing  the  daily  and  yearly  phenomena  of  the  heavens. 
Like  all  conceptions  that  are  based  upon  observation,  these 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  59 

points  are  most  readily  received  by  pupils  who  have  not 
passed  beyond  the  grammar-school  age,  and  they  are  there- 
fore the  surest  foundation  for  advanced  study.  The  mem- 
orizing of  facts  and  dependence  upon  diagrams,  without  the 
conception  by  the  pupils  of  the  celestial  phenomena  caused 
by  the  earth's  motions,  will  result  only  in  confusion. 

Note  — 

The  relative  position  and  sizes  of  the  planets,  taking  the  earth  as 
a  standard. 

The  supposed  condition  of  the  sun,  as  the  source  of  light  and  heat, 
and  of  the  stars. 

The  former  belief  that  the  earth  was  at  rest  in  the  centre,  and  the 
apparent  motions  real. 

The  terms  poles,  axis,  parallels,  equator,  as  belonging  to  a  rotating 
sphere.  Poles,  the  two  opposite  stationary  points.  A  line  con- 
necting these  points,  the  axis.  Parallels,  circles  described 
around  the  axis  by  points  of  the  surface.  Equator,  the  middle 
and  largest  parallel. 

Observations  of  the  apparent  movements  of  sun,  moon,  and  stars 
to  be  encouraged,  and  to  be  reported  upon  from  time  to 
time. 

A  class  will  be  able  to  pass  from  the  simple  illustrations 
already  given  of  the  earth's  motions  and  of  their  effects  (pp. 
26-32),  to  the  conception  of  the  imaginary  celestial  sphere, 
and  of  the  apparent  movements  upon  its  concave  surface. 
Such  questions  as  these  may  lead  to  it :  — 

If  we  should  stand  where  our  horizon  was  unbroken,  how  would  the 
sky  appear  to  us  ? 

Where  would  a  person  stand  to  see  the  other  celestial  hemisphere  ? 

Then  if  the  earth  did  not  intercept  our  view,  we  could  see  sky  in  all 
directions,  or  the  whole  concave  surface  of  the  celestial  sphere. 

Imagine  a  vertical  line  extended  to  meet  this  celestial  sphere  —  the 
points  of  meeting  would  be  our  zenith  and  our  nadir.  Point  to  the 
zenith  (ttp)  —  the  nadir  (down). 

Draw  the  horizon-circle  in  the  air. 


60  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Imagine  the  earth's  axis  prolonged  to  meet  the  celestial  sphere. 

Suppose  an  observer  at  the  north  pole  of  the  earth  —  where  would 
the  prolonged  axis  meet  his  celestial  sphere  ?  What  star  would  be  in 
his  zenith  ?  Then  his  zenith  would  be  the  north  point  of  the  celestial 
sphere. 

Suppose  an  observer  at  the  equator  —  where  would  the  pole-star  be  ? 

Suppose  an  observer  10°  north  of  the  equator  —  where  would  he  see 
the  pole-star  ? 

Where  in  our  sky  is  the  pole-star  ? 

Then  to  what  does  its  altitude  correspond  ? 

Imagine  the  plane  of  our  semi-meridian  extended  to  the  sky.  How 
would  it  meet  the  sky  ? 

Describe  the  celestial  meridian,  in  the  air,  passing  from  the  north 
point  of  the  horizon,  through  the  pole-star  and  the  zenith,  to  the  south 
point  of  the  horizon. 

Imagine  the  plane  of  the  earth's  equator  extended  to  the  sky  —  how 
much  of  the  celestial  equator  is  above  our  horizon  ?  On  which  side 
of  the  zenith  does  it  cross  our  meridian  ?  How  far  from  the  zenith  ? 

Describe  it  in  the  air,  beginning  at  the  east  point  of  the  horizon. 

Think  of  the  tropic  of  Cancer  in  relation  to  the  equator  —  describe 
its  position,  if  its  plane  were  extended  to  meet  our  sky.  The  same 
for  the  tropic  of  Capricorn. 

On  what  circle  of  the  celestial  sphere  does  the  sun  apparently  move 
on  the  21st  of  March  ? 

Then  describe  the  sun's  path  to  an  observer  on  the  equator,  on  that 
day. 

Describe  the  sun's  path  through  our  sky  on  that  day. 

When  does  the  sun  apparently  move  over  the  tropic  of  Cancer  ? 

Describe  his  path  through  our  sky  on  that  day. 

Describe  his  path  through  our  sky  when  vertical  at  the  tropic  of 
Capricorn. 

Describe  the  sun's  daily  path  at  each  of  these  dates  from  different 
points  of  observation  —  on  or  near  the  equator  —  on  or  near  the  north 
pole  —  on  the  Arctic  circle. 

During  what  part  of  the  year  does  the  sun  rise  north  of  the  east 
point  and  set  north  of  the  west  point  of  our  horizon  ? 

South  of  the  east  and  west  points  ? 

Describe  the  movement  of  the  sun  during  the  period  of  continuous 
day  just  north  of  the  Arctic  circle  —  the  different  place  of  the  mid-day 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  61 

and  midnight  sun.    The  different  place  of  the  rising  and  setting  sun 
through  the  year. 

Illustrate  the  greater  heat  of  rays  falling  vertically  than  of  rays  fall- 
ing obliquely  —  more  rays  on  a  given  space,  less  atmosphere  traversed, 
when  falling  vertically. 

Show  difference  in  direction  of  noontime-rays  and  of  morning 
or  evening  rays.  Of  noontime-rays  in  summer  and  winter.  —  In- 
ferences. 

When  pupils  inquire  why  it  is  cold  on  a  high  mountain  near  the 
equator,  under  a  vertical  sun,  they  are  ready  to  learn,  — 

That  rays  of  heat  are  felt  only  when  they  meet  substances  to 

be  affected  by  them. 
That  the  earth's  atmosphere,  and  its  surface  of  land  and  water, 

receive  heat. 

That  space  beyond  the  earth's  atmosphere  is  believed  to  be  cold. 
That  persons  ascending  mountains  or  in  balloons  find  it  colder 

and  darker  as  they  reach  greater  heights  and  leave  more  and 

more  of  the  earth's  atmosphere  below  them. 

When  pupils  ask,  "Why,  as  the  sun  is  so  much  larger  than  the 
earth,  its  rays  do  not  come  round  the  earth  to  us  at  night?'7  they 
need  to  learn,  — 

That  light  is  not  a  visible  substance,  but  only  a  means  of  sight. 

That  objects  become  visible  when  they  receive  rays  of  light  and 
send  them  to  our  eyes. 

That  our  atmosphere  receives  and  sends  us  light,  otherwise  we 
should  have  no  diffused  daylight,  but  a  bright  sun  in  a  dark 
sky. 

That,  at  midnight,  when  the  sun  is  far  below  the  horizon,  the 
rays  still  shoot  up  all  round  the  earth,  into  the  space  beyond 
our  atmosphere,  but  give  us  no  light  unless  they  fall  upon  the 
moon  or  a  planet,  and  are  reflected  to  our  eyes. 

That,  for  a  time  before  sunrise  and  after  sunset,  we  have  twilight, 
or  light  from  the  upper  regions  of  our  atmosphere,  which  re- 
ceive the  sun's  rays  earlier  and  later  than  they  can  reach  us. 

Find  the  cause  of  the  long  twilight  in  high  latitudes. 
Describe  midwinter  in  high  latitudes,  auroras,  moonlight,  etc. 


62  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

The  sun's  apparent  course  among  the  stars  during  a  year  marks  a 
great  circle  on  the  celestial  sphere,  inclined  23-£°  to  the  celestial  equa- 
tor, and  called  the  ecliptic,  because  eclipses  occur  if  the  moon,  when 
new  or  full,  is  on  or  near  this  circle. 

The  sun's  apparent  movement  north  and  south  of  the  equator,  as  it 
becomes  vertical  to  every  place  within  the  tropics,  is  called  its  motion 
in  declination.  This  corresponds  to  latitude  on  the  earth.  (See 
almanac  for  sun's  declination  at  any  time.) 

State  clearly  the  three  causes  of  the  sun's  apparent  motion  through 
a  year. 

Explain  this  familiar  statement:  "  The  sun  is  crossing  the  line." 

Describe  the  sun's  apparent  motion  in  declination  from  March  20th 
to  June  21st.  From  June  to  September. 

Terms  equinox  and  solstice  —  how  applied  ? 

The  sun  is  said  to  be  in  the  signs  Aries,  Cancer,  Capricorn,  etc. 
(See  almanac. )  What  is  meant  ? 

NOTE.  —  Joslin's  "Solar  Telluric  Globe"  illustrates  these  points  and  many 
others  very  clearly. 

Relations  of  Time  to  Longitude. 

Pupils  now  understand  that  rotation  brings  all  the  meridians  under 
the  sun  every  twenty-four  hours,  or  that  noon  travels  westward  round 
the  earth,  at  the  rate  of  15°  in  an  hour. 

Mariners  sailing  westward  round  the  earth  lose  a  day;  and  sailing 
eastward  gain  a  day.  They  must  correct  their  reckoning  in  each  case. 

By  common  consent,  sailors  now  change  their  day  in  longitude  180° 
from  Greenwich.  This  meridian  passes  over  the  Pacific  ocean,  and 
crosses  scarcely  any  land ;  so  it  is  a  convenient  longitude  for  the  change 
of  day. 

Give  practice  in  determining  the  difference  in  local  time  at  two 
places;  their  difference  in  longitude  being  given  and  vice  versa. 

"  Standard  Time."  —  Hourly  standards  recently  adopted.  —  Advan- 
tages to  railroad  managers  and  travellers. 

North  America  divided  into  five  sections,  each  15°  wide.  The 
60th,  75th,  90th,  105th,  120th  meridians,  the  middle  lines  of  these  sec- 
tions. The  same  public  time  throughout  a  section.  The  five  hourly 
standards  designated  respectively  Intercolonial,  Eastern,  Central, 
Mountain,  Pacific  Time. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY,  63 

The  greatest  possible  difference  between  local  time  and  standard 
time,  half  an  hour,  at  places  on  the  borders  of  the  sections.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  standard  time  of  neighboring  places  on  opposite 
sides  of  a  section  line,  one  hour. 

The  Eastern  Time  meridian  passes  between  New  York  and  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Central  Time  meridian  between  Chicago  and  St.  Louis. 
Therefore,  in  these  centres  of  population,  local  time  and  standard 
time  practically  coincide. 

The  Tidal  Wave. 

A  result  of  rotation,  and  of  the  unequal  attraction  of  the 
sun  and  moon  on  different  parts  of  the  earth. 

The  moon  the  chief  tide-producing  force.  Particles  of  water  free 
to  respond  to  the  attracting  force;  hence  the  tidal  wave. 

Spring  tides  occur  when  ? 

Neap  tides  occur  when  ?    Why  ? 

The  form  of  the  coast-line  as  affecting  the  height  and  time  of  the 
tide.  — Examples. 

Winds  —  Ocean-Currents  —  Climate  —  Flora  —  Fauna. 

If  the  elementary  knowledge  of  these  topics  has  been 
applied,  as  the  study  of  the  grand  divisions  has  proceeded, 
pupils  will  be  ready  now  for  a  more  general  treatment  of 
them. 

Let  the  class  trace  long  voyages,  and  decide  where  the  winds  and 
currents  would  be  favorable,  and  where  unfavorable.  What  changes 
of  climate  would  be  met. 

Follow  the  course  of  famous  explorers,  and  inquire  into  the  differ- 
ent physical  conditions  they  found. 

Compare  climates  in  the  same  latitudes,  and  show  why  isothermal 
lines  do  not  correspond  with  the  parallels. 

Consider  the  effect  of  climate  upon  the  life  of  the  inhabitants  of 
different  countries. 

Show  that  the  height  of  the  line  of  perpetual  snow  on  mountains 
varies  with  the  latitude. 

Find  the  geographical  distribution  of  useful  plants  and  animals. 

Compare  the  vegetation  and  animals  of  different  grand  divisions 
within  the  tropics.  Account  for  the  contrasts. 


64  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Mark  out  belts  of  vegetation,  corresponding  with  the  distribution  of 
heat  arid  moisture.  These  broadly  stated,  and  with  many  local  excep- 
tions, are  — 

An  equatorial  forest-belt,  on  both  sides  of  the  equator,  in  a 

region  of  great  heat  and  moisture. 

A  desert-belt,  corresponding  with  each  tropic,  where  the  sun 
is  vertical  longer  than  elsewhere,  and  there  is  much  dryness 
with  the  great  heat. 
A  transition  region  of  pasture  or  grass-lands,  between  these 

belts,  in  each  hemisphere. 
Another  transition  region  of  grass-lands,  in  each  hemisphere, 

beyond  the  desert-belts. 

A  temperate  forest-belt,  in  each  hemisphere,  where  the  return 
trades  prevail.     A  great  variety  of  deciduous  trees,  the  species 
varying  with  the  increasing  latitude. 
A  belt  of  mosses  and  lichens  in  each  hemisphere,  between  the 

temperate  forests  and  the  polar  regions  of  ice  and  snow. 
Trace  the  correspondence  in  vegetation  between  the  base  and  sum- 
mit of  a  high  mountain  in  the  torrid  zone,  and  between  the  equator 
and  the  poles. 

The  representation  on  outline  maps  of  the  direction  of  winds  and 
currents,  of  the  place  of  important  productions,  characteristic  animals,, 
etc.,  will  be  the  surest  means  of  fixing  this  knowledge,  though  then? 
will  not  be  time  for  much  memory-work  of  this  kind.  One  outline  for 
climatic  lines,  another  for  direction  of  winds,  another  for  productions, 
etc.,  will  give  clear  impressions,  which  cannot  be  gained  from  pub- 
lished maps  where  all  these  points  are  crowded  within  one  outline. 

The  Work  of  Water. 

On  the  Surface  and  Underground. 

Keview  and  enlarge  the  early  observation-lessons  on 
evaporation,  condensation,  mist,  fog,  clouds  (different 
kinds),  rain. 

The  distribution  of  rain  depends  upon  the  physical  feat- 
ures of  a  country  and  the  prevailing  winds.  Mountain- 
sides receive  much  rain,  because  the  air,  blowing  up  the 
slope,  is  chilled  and  deposits  its  moisture.  Many  moun- 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING   GEOGRAPHY.  65 

tains  have  a  moist  and  a  dry  side,  according  to  the  direction 
of  the  wind.  Table-lands  surrounded  by  mountains  have 
little  rain. 

What  becomes  of  the  rain  ?  Part  of  it  flows  off  into  the 
streams  and  rivers.  Part  of  it  sinks  below  the  surface.  The 
underground  rain-water  sinks  through  porous  soils  (sand- 
beds,  sandstones,  etc.)  and  through  cracks  in  the  rocks ;  but 
it  cannot  penetrate  clay-beds,  etc.,  and  flows  along  under- 
ground till  it  finds  an  outlet  and  forms  a  spring. 

Rain,  falling  through  the  atmosphere,  takes  up  carbonic 
acid  gas  from  the  air  (we  breathe  it  into  the  air),  and  carries 
it  underground,  where  it  helps  to  dissolve  (we  say  acids  eat) 
the  mineral  substances,  and  thus  we  have  mineral-springs. 

The  salt  of  the  sea  comes  from  the  salt  dissolved  out  of 
the  rocks. 

Underground  water  forms  caves  by  gradually  dissolving 
the  rock-particles  and  removing  them. 

Rain,  flowing  over  the  ground,  dissolves  the  rock-particles, 
and  the  surface-rocks  gradually  crumble  into  soil.  Rain- 
water, freezing  in  the  rocks,  makes  them  crack.  We  get 
soil  from  the  surface-rocks  mainly  by  the  action  of  water. 
Different  rocks  make  different  soils,  some  more  fertile  than 
others.  Plants,  growing  in  and  decaying  on  the  soil,  help  to 
form  more  soil. 

Observations  of  a  wayside-pool  and  of  a  hillside  road, 
after  a  heavy  shower,  will  give  many  points. 

•  Water  finds  out  the  lowest  levels,  all  the  irregularities  of 
the  surface,  and  brooks  and  rivers  deepen  their  own  channels. 

Rock-material  is  carried  by  rivers  to  the  sea.  Terraces, 
deltas,  ravines,  and  canons  are  formed  by  the  action  of 
water. 

The  coast-line  is  changed  by  the  action  of  waves  and 
tides.  Cliffs,  bays,  and  caverns  are  the  effects. 


66  METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Glaciers  and  Icebergs. 

Perpetual  snow-fields.  —  Motion  down  the  slopes.  —  The  pressed 
snow  formed  into  ice. 

River  of  ice  (glacier)  moving  down  the  high  valley. 

River  flowing  from  the  melted  end  of  the  ice. 

Moraines.  —  Crevasses.  —  Rock-scratches. 

Icebergs.  —  Masses  of  ice  broken  from  the  ends  of  glaciers  which 
reach  the  coast. 

Coral  Islands  and  Reefs. 

In  the  torrid  zone,  chiefly  in  the  Pacific  ocean ;  but  there 
are  many  in  the  Indian  ocean  and  in  the  region  of  the  West 
Indies.  Large  reefs  near  Florida  and  Australia. 

Formed  mainly  by  the  united  skeletons  of  myriads  of  coral- 
polyps,  but  partly  by  the  action  of  the  waves. 

Coral  the  result  of  growth,  not  of  building. 

Description  of  a  polyp.     Of  a  colony. 

Mode  of  growth.  Material  for  coral  separated  from  sea- 
water  by  the  polyps. 

Fringing  reefs.     Barrier  reefs. 

Atolls  —  formed  around  island-mountains  —  and  therefore 
usually  oval  or  circular  in  form.  Gradual  sinking  of 
the  sea-bottom  till  the  island  is  submerged.  Thus  a 
Lagoon,  with  an  encircling  reef. 

Different  kinds  of  polyps  form  different  kinds  of  coral,  at 
different  heights  of  a  reef. 

Work  of  the  waves  when  a  reef  reaches  the  surface  of  the 
water. 

First  vegetation  —  Flora  and  Fauna  of  coral  islands. 

Specimens.     Illustrations. 

Volcanoes  and  Earthquakes. 

Formation  of  a  volcanic  mountain. 
Phenomena  of  eruptions.     Materials  ejected. 

Trace  the  lines  of  volcanic  action,  and  connect  their  nearness  to  the 
ocean  with  the  present  theory  of  volcanic  action. 
Phenomena  of  earthquakes. 
Probable  connection  between  volcanoes  and  earthquakes. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  67 

Changes  on  the  Earth's  Surface. 

By  water  in  motion,  —  waves,  tides,  currents,  rivers,  glaciers,  — 
causing  erosion,  debris,  transportation  of  rocks. 

By  winds,  drifting  sands,  etc. 

By  vegetation  and  animal  life  (coral  islands). 

By  volcanoes  and  earthquakes. 

Distribution  of  Land  and  Water. 

Land  hemisphere  —  London  about  the  centre. 

Water  hemisphere  —  New  Zealand  about  the  centre. 

Northern  hemisphere  more  land  than  water,  the  continents  point- 
ing southward. 

Old  World  stretching  from  east  to  west,  nearly  half  round  the  globe. 
Mountain:framework  in  the  same  direction. 

ISew  World  extending  north  and  south.  Mountain-framework  in 
the  same  direction. 

Inference  —  General  outline  corresponds  to  direction  of  mountain-systems. 
(Draw  mountain-systems  of  a  grand  division.) 

Old  World  —  vast  northern  plains. 
New  World  —  vast  central  plains. 

The  Oceans. 

Comparative  size  and  importance. 
Bordering  countries. 
Character  of  the  ocean-bed.     Soundings. 
Icebergs.     Sargasso  Sea. 
Life  in  the  ocean. 
Commercial  products. 
Main  routes  of  ocean-commerce. 
Winds  and  currents  as  favoring  or  hindering  voyages. 
{  Continental. 

Oceanic. 
Islands  classified.  \  __  . 

|.  Volcanic. 

Coral. 

The  Grand  Divisions  compared  as  to 

Coast-line  —  navigable  rivers  and  lakes  —  climate. 
Agricultural  regions  and  their  products. 
Manufacturing  regions  and  their  products. 


68  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Mining  regions  and  their  products. 

Distribution  of  races  of  men. 

The  great  routes  for  trade  and  commerce  traced. 

The  probable  cargoes  of  vessels  from  important  points  given. 

The  Course  of  Discovery  and  the  Progress  of  Civilization. 

These  topics  will  be  specially  interesting  at  the  close  of 
the  study  of  the  earth  as  the  home  of  man  —  noting, 

The  early  civilizations  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  Tigris,  and  Eu- 
phrates. 

The  early  but  isolated  nations  of  India  and  China. 

Grecian  and  Koman  civilization. 

Pyramids,  ruins  of  temples,  palaces,  etc.,  as  evidences  of  early 
civilization. 

Physical  conditions  for  the  spread  of  civilization  in  Europe  —  tem- 
perate climate,  varied  coast-line,  accessible  interior. 

Different  nationalities  in  Europe. 

Wonderful  spread  of  Mohammedanism. 

The  Crusades.  —Effects. 

Marco  Polo's  travels,  bringing  knowledge  of  Asia. 

Early  maritime  nations  —  Genoese  —  Portuguese. 

Discoveries  on  the  coast  of  Africa.     Prince  Henry  of  Portugal. 

Search  for  a  passage  to  India. 

Columbus  —  The  New  World. 

Vasco  da  Gama  —  Ocean-route  to  India. 

Magellan's  circumnavigation. 

Cortes  and  Pizarro  —  Ancient  civilization  in  the  New  World. 

English,  Dutch,  and  French  discoveries  and  colonies. 

Russian  America  (Alaska). 

Cook's  Voyages.    Arctic  Voyages.    Explorations  in  Africa. 

Present  colonial  possessions  of  different  nations. 

Recent  Japanese  civilization. 

Present  facilities  for  communication  throughout  the  civilized  world. 


METHODS    OF   TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  69 


A  LIST  OF  BOOKS, 


IN  ADDITION  TO  THOSE  REFERRED  TO  IN  THE  NOTES,  THAT 
HAVE  BEEN  FOUND  USEFUL  IN  TEACHING  GEOGRAPHY. 


Science  Primer,  —  Physical  Geography  —  Geikie. 
History  Primer,  —  Geography  —  Grove. 

Science  Ladder,  No.  1,  Forms  of  Land  and  Water  —  D'Anvers. 
The  Fairy  Land  of  Science  —  Arabella  B.  Buckley. 
,  Physiography  —  Huxley. 
Earth  and  Man  —  Guyot. 

Physical  Geography.     Revised  edition  —  Maury. 
Elements  of  Physical  Geography  —  Geikie. 
The  Earth,  Ocean,  Atmosphere,  and  Life  (2  vols.)  Eeclus. 
Geological  Sketches — Agassiz. 
Glaciers  (Illustrated  quarto)  — Shaler  &  Davis. 

Science  Primer, — Astronomy  (pp.  1-40)  — Lockyer. 

A  Mathematical  Geography  for  Common  Schools  —  Jackson. 

Astronomy  for  Schools  and  General  Readers  (pp.  92-100)  — 

&  Philips. 
A  Hand-Book  of  the  Terrestrial  Globe  (pp.  12-54)  —Ellen  C.  Fitz. 

(The  last  four  books  present  a  simple  treatment  of  the  motions  of 
the  Earth  and  their  effects.) 

What  Mr.  Darwin  saw  in  his  Voyage  round  the  World  —  Published  by 

Harper  &  Brothers. 
Round  the  World,  by  a  Boy  —  Smiles. 
Around  the  World  —  Prime. 
The  Polar  and  Tropical  World  —  Hartwig. 
The  Sea  and  its  Living  Wonders  —  Hartwig. 
The  Subterranean  World  —  Hartwig. 
Geography,  Physical,  Historical,  Descriptive  —  Keith  Johnston. 


70  METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY. 

Compendium  of  Geography  and  Travels  (6  vols.,  illustrated)  —  Pub- 
lished by  Stanford. 

The  Countries  of  the  World  (6  vols.,  illustrated,  one  for  each  Grand 
Division)  —  Robert  Brown. 

Wanderings  in  Four  Continents  —  Published  by  Lippincott  &  Co. 

Manual  of  Commerce  —  S.  W.  Browne. 

Science  Primer,  —  Natural  Resources  of  the  United  States  —  Patton. 

A  Hand-Book  to  the  Industries  of  the  British  Isles  and  the  United 

States  —  Bevan. 

Commercial  Products  of  the  Sea  —  Simmonds. 
The  Geography  of  the  Oceans  (containing  Tables  of  Commerce)  —  J.  F. 

Williams. 
The  Statesman's  Year  Book,  Statistical  and  Historical  Annual  of  the 

States  of  the  Civilized  World  —  Published  by  Macmillan  &  Co. 

Arctic  Explorations  —  Kane. 

Open  Polar  Sea  —  Ilayes. 

Alaska  —  Dall. 

Oregon  Trail  —  Parkman. 

Wonders  of  the  Yellowstone  —  Richardson. 

Colorado  —  Bayard  Taylor. 

The  West  — .Robert  P.  Porter. 

Nooks  and  Corners  of  the  New  England  Coast  —  Drake. 

Journey  in  Brazil  —  Agassiz. 

Up  the  Amazon  and  Madeira  Rivers  —  Matthews. 

The  Pampas  and  Andes,  A  Thousand  Miles'  Walk  Across  South 

America  —  N.  II.  Bishop. 
Between  the  Amazon  and  Andes,  or  Journey  Across  the  Pampas  — 

Mrs.  Mulhall. 
Life  and  Nature  under  the  Tropics  (Orinoco,  Amazon,  Andes)  — 

Myers. 

Mr.  Bodley  Abroad  —  Scudder. 

The  Bodleys  in  Holland  —  Scudder. 

Zigzag  Journeys  (5  vols.)  — Butterworth. 

Boy  Travellers  in  the  Far  East  (4  vols. )  —  Knox. 

Our  Young  Folks  Abroad  —  McCabe. 

Our  Young  Folks  in  Africa  —  McCabe. 

A  Family  Flight  (3  vols. )  —  Hale. 


METHODS    OF    TEACHING    GEOGRAPHY.  71 

Northern  Travel  (Sweden)  — Bayard  Taylor. 

Land  of  the  Midnight  Sun  —  Da  Chaillu. 

The  Alhambra  —  Irving. 

The  Albert  Nyanza  —  Baker. 

Land  Journey  through  Siberia  —  Collins. 

Oriental  and  Western  Siberia  —  Atkinson. 

Travels  in  the  Region  of  the  Amoor  —  Atkinson. 

Overland  through  Asia,  or  Pictures  of  Tartar  Life  —  Knox. 

The  Middle  Kingdom,  or  Chinese  Empire  —  S.  Wells  Williams. 

China  —  Douglas. 

Arabia  —  Bayard  Taylor. 

English  Governess  in  Siam  —  Mrs.  A.  H.  Leonowens. 

Malay  Archipelago  —  Wallace. 

Various  Text-Books,  Guide-Books,  Hand-Books,  Geographical  Read- 
ers, and  selections  from  works  of  Fiction  (as  descriptive  passages 
from  Bulwer's  Last  Days  of  Pompeii,  etc.). 

The  wide  range  of  Photographic  Illustrations,  made  possible  by  the 
introduction  of  the  Solar  Camera  into  our  school-rooms,  adds  greatly 
to  the  value  and  interest  of  lessons  in  descriptive  geography. 


EDUCATIONAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  WORKS, 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  COMPANY, 

Wholesale  Educational  Booksellers,  Importers,  and  General  School  Furnishers, 
JOHN  A.  BOYLE,  Manager.  15  BROMFIELD  STREET,  BOSTON. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S 

leiiestilnl  mill  Celestidl 

GLOBES. 


Gold  and  Silver  Medals  and  Diplomas  have  been  awarded 
for  these  Globes  in  New  York,  Philadelphia,  Boston, 
and  Baltimore,  and  whenever  other  Globes  have  been 
placed  in  competition,  these  have  invariably  obtained 
the  highest  award. 


USEFULNESS  OF  GLOBES. 


THE  importance  of  Globes,  both  as  articles  of  school  and  house- 
hold furniture,  has  long  been  greatly  under-estimated. 

Until  within  a  few  years  they  were  to  be  found  only  among  our 
colleges  and  leading  academies,  with  occasionally  one  in  some  pub- 
lic or  private  library,  and  were  regarded  almost  in  the  light  of  a 
curiosity  by  the  large  masses  of  people. 

In  these  days  of  popular  education,  however,  the  importance  and 
necessity  of  their  use  in  framing  correct  ideas  in  the  minds  of 
children  has  become  much  more  widely  recognized,  and  has  led  to 
their  general  introduction  into  schools  of  all  grades. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


The  presence  of  a  Globe  in  the  school-room  has  been  found  to  be 
of  the  greatest  assistance ;  having  it  constantly  before  them,  the 
scholars  acquire  correct  ideas  which  could  not  be  gathered  from 
books. 

As  an  example  of  the  increased  consideration  now  being  given 
to  this  subject,  we  may  say  that  the  City  of  Boston,  whose  schools 
are  universally  conceded  to  be  among  the  foremost  in  this  country, 
has  purchased  for  their  use  one  or  more  of  Josliris  Globes  for  every 
school-room  above  the  primary  grade  throughout  the  city.  Moreover, 
the  Joslin  Globe  was  selected  after  a  critical  examination  by  the 
Committee  of  all  globes  in  the  market. 

Some  of  the  advantages  of  Josliu's  Gtobes  are :  They  may  be 
depended  upon  as  accurate,  the  plates  having  lately  been  revised  to 
correspond  with  all  recent  political  changes.  All  the  maps  are 
printed  directly  from  copper  plates,  and  are  not  lithographed.  The 
meridians  are  accurately  graduated.  The  varnish  is  warranted  not 
to  crack  or  peel  off,  a  common  failing.  The  stands  are  thoroughly 
and  firmly  fitted  together,  and  the  general  workmanship  throughout 
is  -of  the  first  order. 

It  will  be  the  constant  endeavor  of  the  maker  to  maintain  the 
reputation  of  the  globes  for  superior  accuracy,  durability,  and 
beauty,  and  to  merit  on  that  account  a  liberal  share  of  public 
patronage. 

Finally,  as  the  JOSLIN  GLOBE  is  the  only  make  that  we  CAN 
WARRANT  in  every  particular,  therefore  we  handle  and  SELL  NO 
OTHER. 

BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 

15  Bromfield  Street,  Boston. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


Style  1. 

Joslin's  Bronze  Pedestal  Stand. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S 

BRONZE  PEDESTAL  STAND, 


STYLE  1. 


Mounted  in  this  manner,  the  globe  is  brought  to  a  convenient 
height  for  use  while  sitting,  and,  at  the  same  time,  presents  an 
ornamental  appearance  adapting  it  to  the  parlor  and  library,  as 
well  as  to  the  school-room.  It  is  furnished  with  horizon,  gradu- 
ated full  brass  nickel-plated  meridian,  hour  dial,  etc. 

The  stand  is  of  bronzed  iron,  and  of  such  design  as  to  combine 
great  strength  with  light  weight  and  symmetrical  appearance. 
Being  mounted  upon  brass  castors,  can  be  readily  moved  to  any 
position. 

PRICES: 

18-inch  Globe,  43  inches  high $64.00 

16     "  42^    "         «         50.00 

12     "         "       383-     "         "         30.00 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


Style  2. 

Joslin's  Tripod  Stand. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S  TRIPOD  STAND, 


STYLE  2. 

This  style  of  mounting  was  gotten  up  particularly  for  parlor  and 
library  use,  many  persons  objecting  to  an  iron  stand.  It  makes  a 
very  light,  strong,  and  ornamental  stand,  and  will  look  well  with 
any  furniture.  The  arms  that  support  the  ball  and  horizon  are 
japanned  and  decorated,  and  pivoted  the  same  as  in  all  rotary 
globes.  The  legs  are  japanned  with  a  little  decorating,  and  screw 
into  the  socket  supporting  the  arms  by  a  polished  brass  cap-piece 
fastened  to  their  top. 

PRICES: 

18  inch  Globe $62.50 

16     "        "       48.00 

12     "        "       30.00 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S  Low  BRONZE  STAND, 


STYLE  3. 


This  style,  with  black  walnut  horizon,  graduated  full  brass- 
meridian,  hour  dial,  etc.,  is  mounted  upon  a  light  bronzed  stand  of 
neat  and  appropriate  design. 

The  arms  which  support  the  horizon  are  pivoted  to  the  base,  thu& 
allowing  any  portion  of  the  globe  to  be  turned  to  the  student  with- 
out changing  the  position  of  the  base  itself,  —  a  very  desirable 
arrangement. 

PRICES: 

16  inch  Globe $40.00 

12   •"         "       20.00 

10     "         "        14.50 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S  FULL  WOOD  STAND, 


STYLE  4. 


Mounted  upon  a  substantially  made  cherry  wood  stand,  with 
horizon,  graduated  full  brass  meridian,  hour  dial,  and  index,  this 
globe  has  all  the  appliances  for  use  in  the  solution  of  problems. 

It  is  well  adapted  to  all  grades  of  schools. 

PRICES  : 

16  inch  Globe .     .  $36.00 

12     "        "       ,.    .     17.60 

10     "         "       13.60 

6     "         "       8.00 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON    SCHOOL    SUPPLY    CO, 


JOSLIN'S  Low  TRIPOD  STAND, 


STYLE  5. 


Mounted  upon  three  light,  neat,  bronzed  iron  legs,  (preventing 
any  shrinking  and  coming  apart,  as  sometimes  happens  in  wooden 
stands),  with  black  walnut  horizon,  graduated  full  brass  meridian, 
hour  dial,  and  index.  Everything  is  as  accurate  as  in  the  highest 
priced  globe  ever  made. 

PRICES : 

12  inch  Globe $17.60 

10     "         "       13.60 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S  SEMI-CIRCLE  STAND, 


STYLE  6. 


Polished  black  walnut  stand,  with  graduated  brass  semi-meridian. 
For  those  who  use  the  globe  for  reference  only,  and  who  never  de- 
sire to  work  problems,  this  style  is  neat  and  most  appropriate. 

PRICES : 

12  inch  Globe $13.60 

10     "        "       9.60 

6     "         "       4.00 

Globe  with  Celestial  Map,  same  price. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


JOSLIN'S 

TELLURIC  GLOBE, 


This  style  was  specially  designed  to  furnish  a  simple  means  of 
illustrating  the  causes  of  the  Changes  of  the  Seasons  and  of  the 
numerous  other  phenomena  which  are  related  to  them.  Their  suc- 
cess in  accomplishing  this  much  desired  end  is  fully  attested  by  the 
high  commendations  of  teachers  from  all  sections  of  the  country. 

Each  globe  is  accompanied  with  a  printed  manual  of  30  pages, 
giving  a  complete  description  of  the  globe  and  its  various  uses, 
with  illustrative  problems. 

PRICE: 
6  inch  Globe $15.00 


EDUCATIONAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  WORKS. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL   SUPPLY   COMPANY, 

Wholesale  Educational  Booksellers,  Importers,  and  General  School  Furnishers, 
JOHN  A.  BOYLE,  Manager.  15  BROMFIELD  STREET,  BOSTON. 


BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  CO. 


PHILIPS' 


IMPERIAL  ATLAS. 


A  series  of  New  and  Authentic  Maps,  size  22x32,  engraved  from 
Original  Drawings,  compiled  from  National  Surveys,  and  the 
works  of  eminent  Travellers  and  Explorers.  Accompanied  by  a 
valuable  Consulting  Index  of  120,000  names. 


CONTENTS. 


1.  The  World,  in  Hemispheres.  27. 

2.  The  World,  on  Mercator's  Projec-  28. 

tion.  29. 

3.  Europe.  30. 

4.  British  Empire,  on  a  uniform  scale. 

5.  Commercial  and  Industrial  Map  of  31. 

the  British  Islands.  32. 

6.  England  and  Wales  (North).  33. 

7.  Do.  (South).  34. 

8.  Scotland  (North). 

9.  Do.       (South).  35. 

10.  Ireland  (North).  36. 

11.  Do.      (South).  37. 

12.  France.  38. 

13.  Holland  and  Belgium.  39. 

14.  Switzerland.  40. 

15.  German  Empire  (North).  41. 

16.  Do.          (South).  42. 

17.  Austro-Huugariau  Empire.  43. 

18.  Prussia.  44. 

19.  Denmark,  with  the  Foreign  Pos-  45. 

sessions  of  the  Danish  Monarchy.  46. 

20.  Sweden  and  Norway.  47. 

21.  Russia  in  Europe.  48. 

22.  Turkey  in  Europe.  49. 

23.  Greece,  the  Ionian  Islands,   and  50. 

the  Archipelago. 

24.  Italy  (North).  51. 

25.  Do.  (South). 

26.  Spain  and  Portugal. 

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Asia. 

Turkey  in  Asia. 

Palestine  and  the  Sinai  Peninsula. 

Arabia,  with  Egypt,  Nubia,  and 

Abyssinia. 

Persia  and  Afghanistan. 
India  (North). 

Do.  (South). 
Burmah,    Siam,   Anam,   and    the 

East  Indian  Archipelago. 
Chinese  Empire  and  Japan. 
Russia  in  Asia. 
Africa. 

Northern  and  Southern  Africa. 
North  America. 
Dominion  of  Canada  (East). 
Do.         (West). 

United  States  (North-Eastern) . 
Do.         (Western). 
Do.         (South-Eastern). 
Mexico  and  Central  America. 
West  Indies. 
South  America  (North). 
Do.  (South). 

Australia  (General  Map). 
New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and 

South  Australia. 
New  Zealand,  and  the  Polynesian 

Islands. 


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PHILIPS' 

1  MB  of  flu 


A  series  of  New  and  Authentic  Maps,  size  22x32,  from  Original 
Drawings,  delineating  the  Natural  and  Political  Divisions  of 
the  Empires,  Kingdoms,  and  States  of  the  World.  Accom- 
panied by  a  valuable  Consulting  Index  of  90,000  names. 


CONTENTS. 


9. 
10. 
11. 
12. 
13. 
14. 
15. 

.16. 
17. 
18. 

19. 

20. 


"The  World,  in  Hemispheres. 

The  World,  on  Mercator's  Projec- 
tion. 

Europe. 

British  Empire,  on  a  uniform  scale. 

Commercial  and  Industrial  Map  of 
the  British  Islands. 

England  and  Wales. 

Scotland. 

Ireland. 

France. 

Holland  and  Belgium. 

Switzerland. 

German  Empire. 

Ausfro-Hungarian  Empire. 

Prussia. 

Denmark,  with  the  Foreign  Pos- 
sessions of  the  Danish  Monarchy. 

Sweden  and  Norway. 

Russia  in  Europe. 

Turkey  in  Europe. 

Greece,  the  Ionian  Islands,  and 
the  Archipelago. 

Italy. 


21.  Spain  and  Portugal. 

22.  Asia. 

23.  Turkey  in  Asia. 

24.  Syria  and  the  Sinai  Peninsula. 

25.  India. 

26.  Burmah,    Siam,  Anam,   and    the 

East  Indian  Archipelago. 

27.  Chinese  Empire  and  Japan. 

28.  Africa. 

29.  North  America. 

30.  Canada,  New   Brunswick,   Nova 

Scotia,  and  Newfoundland. 

31.  United    States  —  North-Eastern 

Sheet. 

32.  United  States  —  Western  Sheet. 

33.  United     States  —  South-Eastern 

Sheet. 

34.  Mexico  and  Central  America. 

35.  West  India  Islands. 

36.  South  America. 

37.  Australia  —  General  Map. 

38.  New     South     Wales,     Victoria, 

Queensland,  and  South  Australia. 

39.  New  Zealand  and  the  Polynesian 

Islands. 


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PHILIPS' 

the 


A  comprehensive  series  of  Maps,  size  15x19  inches,  illustrating 
Modern,  Historical,  and  Physical  Geography.  With  a  com- 
plete Consulting  Index. 


CONTENTS. 


1.  The  World,  on  Sir  John  Herschel's 

Projection. 

la.  North  and  South  Polar  Charts. 
Ib.  Sketch-Map  of  the  British  Empire 

throughout  the  World. 

2.  The  World  in  Hemispheres. 

3.  Map  of  the  World. 

3a.  Physical  Chart  of  the  World. 

4.  Europe. 

5.  British  Isles,  North  Sea. 

6.  England  and  Wales. 

7.  Scotland. 

8.  Ireland. 

9.  France. 

10.  German  Empire. 

11.  Switzerland  and  the  Alps. 

12.  Austro-Hungary. 

13.  Italy,    Turkey    in    Europe,    and 

Greece. 

14.  Spain  and  Portugal. 

15.  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and 

the  Baltic  Sea. 

16.  Russia  in  Europe. 

17.  Asia. 

18.  Turkey  in  Asia,  Persia,  Arahia, 

Egypt. 

19.  Palestine,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

20.  India,  Afghanistan,  Beloochistan, 

Burmah,  and  Siam. 

21.  Chinese  Empire,  Eastern  Turkes- 

tan, etc, 

21a.  Japan,  Liu  Kiu  Islands,  and  For- 
mosa. 


22.  Africa. 

23.  North  America. 

24.  Dominion  of  Canada  and  Northern 

United  States. 

25.  United  States. 

26.  Mexico,   Central    America,  West 

India    Islands,    Colombia,    and 
Venezuela. 

27.  South  America. 

28.  Australia. 

29.  New  South  Wales,  Victoria,  and 

Part  of  South  Australia. 

30.  Queensland. 

31.  New  Zealand. 

32.  Oceania  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

33.  Minor    British    Possessions    and 

Settlements  in  Europe,  Africa, 
and  adjoining  Ocean. 

34.  Cape  Colony  and  Natal. 

35.  Minor  British  Possessions  in  Asia. 

36.  British   Possessions    in  America, 

and  the   Canadian  Province  of 
British  Columbia. 

37.  The  World  as  known  to  the  An- 

cients. 

38.  Europe  in  the  Eighteenth  Century, 

previous  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion. 

39.  Europe  during  the  earlier  years  of 

the  Nineteenth  Century,  showing 
the  Empire  of  Napoleon  I. 


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PHILIPS' 


of  flu  World, 


A  Series  of  Thirty-six  Maps,  size  15x19,  constructed  from  the  most  recent 
authorities.    The  Maps  beautifully  printed  in  colors. 

Accompanied  by  a  copious  Consulting  Index. 


V*  The  Popular  Atlas  embodies  a  selection  of  Maps  eminently  suited  for  gen- 
eral use,  including  all  that  are  required  for  reference  by  the  current  necessities 
of  the  time  ;  they  form,  in  short,  an  epitome  of  Map  knowledge  —  attractive  in 
form,  compendious  in  character,  and  moderate  in  price. 


1.  The  World.   On  Sir  John  Herschel's 

Projection. 

2.  The  World  in  Hemispheres. 

3.  Map  of  the  World.    Illustrating  the 

Natural  Productions  of  Different 
Lands. 

3A.  Physical  Chart  of  the  World.  Il- 
lustrating the  Distribution  of 
Winds  and  the  Principal  Hydro- 
graphic  Basins. 

4.  Europe  and  the  Mediterranean  Sea. 

5.  British  Isles,  North  Sea,  and  Ad- 

joining Countries. 

6.  England  and  Wales. 

7.  Scotland. 

8.  Ireland. 

9.  France. 

10.  German  Empire. 

10A.  Belgium  and  the  Netherlands. 

11.  Switzerland  and  the  Alps. 

12.  Austria-Hungary. 

13.  Italy,Turkey  in  Europe,  and  Greece. 

14.  Spain  and  Portugal. 

15.  Sweden,  Norway,  Denmark,  and  the 

Baltic  Sea. 

16.  Russia  in  Europe. 

17.  Asia. 

18.  Turkey    in    Asia,    Persia,   Arabia, 

Egypt,  and  the  Countries  of  the 
Nile. 


19.  Palestine,  Ancient  and  Modern. 

20.  India,    Afghanistan,    Beloochistan, 

Burmah,  and  Siam. 

21.  Chinese  Empire. 

22.  Africa.     Plan    of  Suez  Canal  and 

Delta  of  the  Nile. 

23.  North  America. 

24.  Dominion  of  Canada  (Eastern  Por- 

tion), and  Northern  United  States. 

25.  United  States. 

26.  Mexico,  Central  America,  West  In- 

dia Islands,  Columbia,  and  Ven- 
ezuela. 

27.  South  America. 

28.  Australia. 

29.  New  South   Wales,    Victoria,    and 

part  of  South  Australia. 

30.  Queensland. 

30A.  Western  Australia. 

31.  New  Zealand. 

32.  Oceania  and  the  Pacific  Ocean. 

33.  Minor  British  Possessions  and  Set- 

tlements in  Africa,  and  Adjoining 
Oceans,  with  Cyprus. 

34.  Cape  Colony  and  Natal. 

35.  Transvaal  and  Orange  Free  State. 

36.  Minor  British  Possessions  in  Ameri- 

ca, and  the  Canadian  Province  of 
British  Columbia. 


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PHILIPS' 


In  a  Series  of  beautifully  engraved  Maps  and  Plates,  size  16x22, 
illustrating  the  Natural  Features  of  the  Globe,  the  Geographi- 
cal Distribution  of  Natural  Phenomena,  and  their  connection 
with  the  Industrial  Pursuits  of  Mankind. 


CONTENTS. 


1.  The  World,   illustrating  the  dis-    13. 

tribution  of  Land  and  Water, 
with  the  Contour  and  Compara- 
tive Relief  of  the  Land. 

2.  Map  of  the  World,  showing  the    14, 

chief  natural  features  and  divi- 
sions of  the  Land,  with  the 
Ocean  Currents. 

3.  Map  showing  the  supposed  Geo-    15. 

logical  Structure  of  the  Earth. 

4.  Map  illustrating  the  Phenomena 

of  Volcanic  Action,  showing  the    16. 
reaction  of  the  interior  of  the 
Earth  upon  its  external  surface. 

5.  The  Mountain-chains  and  River- 

systems  of  Europe.  17. 

6.  The  Mountain-chains  and  River- 

systems  of  Asia. 

7.  The  Mountain-chains  and  River-    18. 

systems  of  Africa. 

8.  The  Mountain-chains  and  River- 

systems  of  North  America. 

9.  The  Mountain-chains  and  River- 

systems  of  South  America. 

10.  Map  of  the  World,  illustrating  the 

Climates    of   different    regions, 
with  the  principal  Hydrographic    19. 
Basins  of  either  Continent. 

11.  Co-tidal  Lines  and  Curves  of  Equal 

Magnetic  Variation. 

12.  Map  of  the  World,  illustrating  the    20. 

distribution  of  Vegetable  Life  in 
different  regions,  and  as  affected 
by  conditions  of  climate. 

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Map  of  Botanical  Regions,  with 
the  distribution  and  cultivation 
of  all  the  important  Plants  used 
as  food  for  Man. 

Illustrations  of  the  Perpendicular 
Distribution  of  Plants  in  the 
Torrid,  Temperate,  and  Frigid 
Zones. 

Map  showing  the  Geographical 
Distribution  of  the  principal 
Mammalia. 

Illustrations  of  the  Perpendicular 
Distribution  of  Animals  in  the 
Torrid,  Temperate,  and  Frigid 
Zones. 

Map  showing  the  Geographical 
Distribution  of  Birds  and  Rep- 
tiles. 

Map  showing  the  Distribution  of 
Mankind,  according  to  the 
amount  and  comparative  density 
of  Population  in  different  Lands ; 
with  the  present  distribution  of 
Man  according  to  Race,  and  the 
geographical  distribution  of  the 
principal  Religions. 

Map  illustrating  the  Natural  Pro- 
ductions of  different  Lands,  and 
the  Principal  Routes  of  Maritime 
Commerce. 

Physical  Map  of  the  British  Is- 
lands. 


EDUCATIONAL  AND  GEOGRAPHICAL  WORKS. 


n £11*8 


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HUGHES' 


Mew  Educational  Wall  Mapg. 


UNANIMOUSLY  ADOPTED  BY  THE  CITY  OF  BOSTON. 


CITY  OF  BOSTON,  DEPARTMENT  OF  PUBLIC  INSTRUCTION, 

Secretary's  Office.  ' 
BOSTON  SCHOOL  SUPPLY  Co. 

Gentlemen,  —  At  a  meeting  of  the  School  Committee  of  Boston,  held  June 
26th,  the  following  order  was  passed  by  the  Board  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
Committee  on  Text  Books  : 

ORDERED.  That  Hughes'  Series  of  Maps  be  authorized  for  use  in  the 
Grammar  Schools. 

Yours  very  truly,  PHINEAS  BATES, 

Sec'y  Sch.  Committee. 


DESCRIPTION.  — Prepared  expressly  for  School  use  under  the  personal  super- 
vision of  William  Hughes,  F.  R.  G.  S.  Names  introduced  with  great  judg- 
ment, free  from  overcrowding.  Physical  features  boldly  and  distinctly 
delineated.  Political  boundaries  carefully  colored.  Adapted  to  any  series 
of  geographies. 

MOUNTING.  — On  strong   Cloth,  with  Rollers,  Colored  and  Varnished.    Size 

uniformly  54x68  inches. 

Wholesale  Price. 

1.  World  on  Mercator's  Projection $6.00 

2.  World  in  Hemispheres 4.50 

3.  North  America 4.50 

4.  South  America 4.50 

5.  Europe 4.50 

6.  Asia 4.50 

7.  Africa 4.50 

8.  The  United  States,  drawn  from  latest  Government  Surveys, 

just  ready 4.50 

SUPPLEMENTARY    MAPS. 

UNIFORM  IN  SIZE  AND  STYLE. 

England  and  Wales 4.50 

Scotland 4.50 

Ireland 4.50 

British  Isles 6.00 

Australia  and  New  Zealand 4.50 

Palestine 4.50 

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DESCRIPTION.  —  Engraving  fine.    Full  in  details.    Railroads  are  shown  ;  also 

all  towns. 
MOUNTING.  — On  Cloth  —  Rollers  — Varnished. 

1.  The  Eastern  Hemisphere.    48x48 $7.00 

2.  The  Western  Hemisphere.    48x48 7.00 

3.  United  States,  Mexico,  Central   America,  and  the   West 

Indies.    72x80 10.00 

4.  South  America.    50x46 7.00 

5.  Europe.    58x44 7.00 

6.  Africa.    58x44 7.00 

7.  Asia.    58x44 7.00 

8.  Occanica.    48x60 7.00 


COLTON'S. 

DESCRIPTION.  —  In  style  of  execution  bold  and  clear.     Nearly  uniform  in  size. 
Embraces  all  names  mentioned  in  text  books. 

1.  The  Roman  Empire.    45x59 $5.00 

2.  Western  Europe  (Britannia,  Gallia,  Hispania,  etc.).    59x40  .  5.00 

3.  Italy.    59x40 5.00 

4.  Greece,  Macedonia,  etc.     59x40 5.00 

5.  Asia  Minor  (including  Thrace,  Macedonia,  Greece,  Syria, 

Lower  Egypt,  etc.).    45x59  . 5.00 

JOHNSTON'S. 

1.  Orbis  Veteribus  Notus.    50x42 $3.50 

2.  Italia  Antiqua.    50x42 3.50 

3.  Graecia  Antiqua.    50x42 '.    .  3.50 

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5.  Orbis  Romanus.    50x42 3.50 

GUYOT'S. 

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are:  — 

BARLEY.  BUCKWHEAT.  MILLET. 

MAIZE.  OATS.  KICE. 

EYE.  WHEAT. 

Each  Picture  represents  the  Plant  twice  the  natural  size,  and  is 
mounted  on  a  strong  board,  20  by  13  inches,  and  varnished.  Descrip- 
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USEFUL    TREES.      Trees  grown  for  their  Wood.     Beautifully 
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THE  OAK.  THE  ELM.  THE  FIR. 

THE  BEECH.  THE  MAHOGANY.    THE  ASH. 

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and  printed  in  Colors.  Size  of  each  drawing,  25  by  20  inches. 
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THE  TEA  PLANT.      THE  COFFEE  PLANT. 

THE  SUGAR  PLANT.    THE  COTTON  PLANT. 

THE  COCOA  PLANT.    THE  TOBACCO  PLANT. 

A  short  description  accompanies  each  Plant. 

JOHNSTON'S  ETHNOGRAPHICAL  HEADS,  "The  Races  of 
Mankind."  Five  Typical  Heads,  showing  the  distinguishing  char- 
acteristics of  the  Caucasian,  Mongolian,  Indian,  Malayan,  and 
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This  series  of  Charts  will  be  found  of  great  utility  in  imparting  a 
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complete  in  itself,  and  presents  a  Synopsis  of  the  Science  illustrated. 
The  illustrations  are  boldly  drawn,  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  are  well 
suited  for  viewing  at  a  distance.  Interesting  and  clear  descriptive 
notes  accompany  each  chart. 

Chart  i.  —  Laws  of  Matter  and  Motion.  Illustrating  the  Properties 
of  Bodies,  Laws  of  Gravitation,  The  Pendulum,  Central  Forces, 
Centrifugal  Force,  Centripetal  Force,  Laws  of  Motion,  Angles  of 
Incidence  and  Reflection,  Composition  and  Resolution  of  Forces, 
etc.  Size,  60  by  40  inches,  on  cloth,  colored  and  varnished,  with 
rollers.  $3.75. 

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Levers  and  their  Applications,  Wheel  and  Axle,  Windlass,  Capstan, 
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nected therewith,  including  Pumps,  Water-Wheels,  Water-Ram, 
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Marine  Currents,  Tides,  River  Systems,  etc.,  Distribution  of  the 
Winds,  Monsoons,  and  Typhoons,  Distribution  of  the  Rain,  Dis- 
tribution of  Climates,  Volcanoes,  Earthquake  Regions,  etc.  On 
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ored ;  including  the  Solar  System,  Telescopic  Views  of  the  Sun 
and  Moon,  The  Earth  and  its  Atmosphere,  The  Seasons,  Phases 
of  the  Moon,  Eclipses  of  the  Sun  and  Moon,  Comparative  Magni- 
tudes of  the  Planets,  Spring  and  Neap  Tides,  Phenomena  of  Day 
.and  Night,  etc.  On  six  sheets,  each  25x20  inches,  with  Descrip- 
tion. 

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REYNOLDS'  ETHNOLOGICAL  CHART.  Fifty  Full-length 
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National  Costumes  of  the  principal  Varieties  of  the  Human 
Race.  Correctly  grouped  and  colored.  On  four  sheets,  each  30x 
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REYNOLDS'  GEOMETRICAL  CHART.  A  series  of  Large  Dia- 
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REYNOLDS'  ZOOLOGICAL  CHART.  A  series  of  Diagrams 
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fessor of  Geology  and  Mineralogy  in  University  College,  London. 
This  important  chart  has  lately  been  revised  by  Prof.  Morris,  and 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY, 
BERKELEY 

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Philips'  Historical  Readers. 


1.  STORIES  FROM  ENGLISH  HISTORY.      128 

pages;  38  Short  Lessons,  with  numerous  Explanatory 
Notes;  62  beautiful  Pictures,  and  a  Map  of  England  and 
Wales.  Price,  35  cents. 

These  stories  from  English  History  form  one  of  the  brightest  and  most 
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forms  the  frontispiece,  is  extremely  fine.  Altogether  this  book  :s  an  admirable 
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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


4.     MODERN"  ENGLAND,  from  1603  to  1883.    272  pages. 
Price,  52  cents. 

In  this  book,  the  great  events  of  the  last  two  hundred  and  eighty  years  are 
graphically  ard  succinctly  described  and  fully  illustrated.  The  high  educative 
value  of  good  pictures  has  been  constantly  kept  in  view,  and  the  number  and 
beauty  of  the  illustrations  form  one  of  the  characteristic  features  of  the  Series. 
The  greatest  possible  care  has  been  taken  to  preserve  an  absolutely  impartial  tone 
throughout  the  series. 

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